Motivation for work. tutorial
Rice. 1. Hierarchy of needs according to A. Maslow
He believed that the needs of lower levels influence human behavior before the needs of higher levels. At any given moment, a person strives to satisfy the need that is more important or stronger for him. The next level need will become the most powerful factor in human behavior when the lower level need is satisfied.
Physiological needs are essential for survival. These include the needs for food, water, shelter, and rest.
The need for safety and security involves protection from physical and psychological dangers from the outside world and confidence that physiological needs will be satisfied in the future.
The need to belong and be involved includes a sense of belonging to something or someone, a sense of social interaction, affection and support.
The need for recognition and self-affirmation implies self-respect (personal achievements, competence), respect from others.
The need for self-expression is the need to realize one’s capabilities.
Practical conclusions from Maslow's concept:
— the needs of higher levels cannot become motives until the primary needs (of the first two levels) are satisfied;
- the higher the level of needs, the fewer people they are the motivation for active activity;
- unsatisfied needs stimulate workers, and satisfied ones cease to influence, so other unsatisfied needs take their place;
- the satisfaction of any one need does not automatically lead to the activation of a higher level need.
Maslow's concept had a great influence on the development of the theory and practice of modern management. However, life has shown that the concept has a number of very vulnerable points.
First, needs manifest themselves differently depending on many situational factors (job content, position in the organization, age, etc.).
Secondly, there is not always a rigid following of one group of needs after another, as is presented in Maslow’s “pyramid”.
Thirdly, satisfaction of secondary needs does not always lead to a weakening of their impact on motivation. Maslow believed that the exception to this rule is the need for self-expression, which may not weaken, but, on the contrary, strengthen its effect on motivation as it is satisfied. Practice shows that the needs of recognition and self-affirmation can also have an enhancing effect on motivation in the process of satisfying them.
In development of the theory, A. Maslow, M. Mescon, M. Albert and F. Khedouri proposed methods for meeting the needs of higher levels of employees in an enterprise.
Satisfying social needs:
1. Give employees work that would allow them to communicate.
2. Create a team spirit in the workplace.
3. Conduct periodic meetings with subordinates.
4. Try not to destroy informal groups that have arisen if they do not cause real damage to the organization.
5. Create conditions for social activity of members of the organization outside its framework.
Satisfying esteem needs:
1. Offer more meaningful work to subordinates.
2. Provide them with positive feedback on the results achieved.
3. Highly evaluate and encourage the results achieved by subordinates.
4. Involve subordinates in formulating goals and developing decisions.
5. Delegate additional rights and powers to subordinates.
6. Promote subordinates up the career ladder.
7. Provide training and retraining that improves competence.
Satisfying needs for self-expression:
1. Provide training and development opportunities for subordinates to enable them to fully utilize their potential.
2. Give subordinates complex and important work that requires their full commitment.
3. Encourage and develop creative abilities in subordinates.
D. McClelland's theory of acquired needs examines three needs that motivate a person:
1) the need for achievement, manifested in a person’s desire to achieve his goals more effectively than he did before;
2) the need for complicity, manifested in the form of a desire for friendly relations with others, receiving support from them. To satisfy it, the owners of the need need constant wide contacts, a supply of information, etc.;
3) the need for power (administrative, authority, talent, etc.), consisting of the desire to control people’s actions, resources, influence people’s behavior, and take responsibility for their actions.
It is emphasized that at present these higher-level needs are especially important, since the needs of lower levels, as a rule, have already been satisfied (in developed countries). Moreover, the needs of achievement, participation and power in this concept are not mutually exclusive and are not located hierarchically, as was presented in Maslow’s concept. Moreover, the manifestation of the influence of these needs on human behavior strongly depends on their mutual influence.
Individuals with high power motivation can be divided into two, in principle, mutually exclusive groups. The first are those who strive for power for the sake of domination. The second group includes individuals who strive to gain power in order to achieve solutions to group problems.
D. McClelland believed that of the three needs considered in his concept, the most important for a manager is the developed need for power of the second type.
Alderfer's ERG theory (from the English existence - existence; relatedness - belonging (connections); growth - growth) is based on the fact that human needs can be divided into three categories:
1) needs of existence (E);
2) communication needs (R);
3) growth needs (G).
Existence needs seem to include two groups of primary needs in Maslow’s pyramid. Communication needs correspond with the group of belonging and involvement needs. They reflect the social nature of a person, his desire to be a member of the family, to have colleagues, friends, superiors and subordinates. Therefore, part of the recognition and self-affirmation needs from Maslow’s pyramid can also be included in this group. Growth needs are similar to the self-expression needs of Maslow's pyramid; they also include group needs for recognition and self-affirmation, which are associated with the desire for self-improvement.
These three groups of needs are arranged hierarchically. However, unlike A. Maslow, K. Alderfer believed that the movement goes in both directions. To the top, if the need of the lower level is satisfied, the needs rise from more specific to less specific. Down if a higher level need is not satisfied. At the same time, the degree of action of a need of a lower level, but more specific, increases; the person switches to it.
Al-derfer called the process of moving up the levels of needs the process of satisfying needs, and the process of moving down the process of frustration, i.e. defeat in the desire to satisfy the need.
This opens up additional opportunities for managers to find effective forms of motivation that correlate with lower level needs if it is not possible to satisfy higher level needs. For example, if an organization does not have the capabilities to satisfy a person's need for growth, then he can switch to the need for connection, and the organization can provide him with such an opportunity.
The theory of two factors by F. Herzberg states that the processes of gaining satisfaction and increasing dissatisfaction from the point of view of the factors that cause them are two different processes, i.e., for example, factors that caused an increase in dissatisfaction, when eliminated, did not necessarily lead to an increase in satisfaction.
The process of “satisfaction - lack of satisfaction” is mainly influenced by factors related to the content of the work, that is, with factors internal to it. These factors have a strong motivating effect on human behavior. They are called motivating and are considered as an independent group of needs - a group of growth needs. It includes: achievement, recognition, responsibility, promotion, the work itself, the opportunity for growth.
The process “dissatisfaction - absence of dissatisfaction” is determined by the influence of factors mainly related to the environment in which work is carried out, i.e. external. Their absence causes workers to feel dissatisfied. At the same time, their presence does not necessarily cause a state of satisfaction, i.e. they do not play a motivating role. They are called "health" factors. They can be considered as a group of human needs to eliminate difficulties, desires and problems. These factors include: conditions in the workplace, work schedule, management control, relationships with colleagues and subordinates, wages.
Therefore, if employees have a feeling of dissatisfaction, the manager must pay primary attention to the factors that cause it and do everything to eliminate it. In the future, the manager must put motivating factors into action and try to achieve high work results through employee satisfaction.
Process theories of motivation
In addition to these substantive ones, there are also procedural theories of motivation. They talk about how the motivation process works and how people can be motivated to achieve the desired results. They analyze how a person distributes efforts to achieve goals and chooses the type of behavior in the process of their implementation. According to these theories, an individual's behavior is also a function of his perceptions and expectations associated with a given situation, and the possible consequences of his chosen type of behavior.The following major process theories of motivation have received recognition: expectancy theory, equity theory, Porter-Lawler model of motivation and the concept of participative management.
According to the expectancy theory, the presence of an active need is not the only necessary condition for motivating a person to achieve a certain goal. A person must also hope that the type of behavior he chooses will actually lead to satisfaction or the acquisition of what he wants. In this theory, the motivation system is built on quantitative relationships between the input of the system - labor costs and its output - the degree of satisfaction with the reward for the labor invested. For example, a performer, having increased the intensity of his work by 20%, must be sure that the degree of satisfaction with the reward from increasing the intensity of work will increase by at least 20%. The management task in this case comes down to developing a quantitatively justified system for motivating productivity growth or the quality of the performer’s work.
The main idea of the theory of equality, or fairness, founded by Stacy Adams, is that in the process of work, a person compares how his actions were evaluated with how the actions of others were evaluated. And depending on whether he is satisfied with his comparative assessment, a person changes his behavior.
A person experiences a feeling of satisfaction if equality is observed, and therefore strives to maintain it.
If an individual believes that he has been rewarded insufficiently or excessively, he develops a feeling of dissatisfaction (in the second case, this feeling is less pronounced), and he loses motivation.
Adams identifies six possible human responses to a state of inequality:
1) decide for yourself that you need to reduce labor costs;
2) make an attempt to increase remuneration, demand an increase in wages, etc.;
3) reassess your capabilities, decide that you thought incorrectly about your abilities. At the same time, the level of confidence decreases, he decides that there is no need to increase efforts, since what he receives reflects his capabilities;
4) try to influence the organization and compared individuals in order to force them to increase labor costs or achieve a reduction in their remuneration;
5) change the object of comparison for oneself, deciding that the person with whom he is being compared is in special conditions;
6) move to another division or organization.
Therefore, management should ensure that people have broad access to information about who is being remunerated for what and how. It is important that there is a clear remuneration system.
In addition, people are guided by a comprehensive assessment of work. Payment plays a big role, but far from the only one.
Management needs to take into account that the perception of equality and fairness is subjective, so research should be conducted to find out how employees evaluate remuneration and whether they consider it fair.
The Porter-Lawler model of motivation is based on expectancy and equity theories. The results achieved by an employee depend on three variables: the effort expended, the abilities and characteristics of the person, and his awareness of his role in the labor process. The level of effort expended, in turn, depends on the value of the reward and how much the individual believes in receiving and being satisfied with the reward.
The concept of participative management is based on the following: if a person takes part in various intra-organizational activities, he receives satisfaction from this and works with greater efficiency, better quality and productivity, because:
- this gives the employee access to decision-making on issues related to his work in the organization, thereby motivating him to do his job better;
- this leads to a greater contribution of the employee to the life of the organization through more complete use of human resources;
— employees develop a sense of ownership, motivation increases, they better carry out the decisions they make;
- creates an atmosphere of group, collaborative work, which significantly improves work morale and productivity.
Thus, the concept of participative management cannot be associated only with the process of motivation; it should be considered as one of the approaches to managing a person in an organization.
Such control can be implemented in several directions, which in practice are usually used in a certain combination, since they are related to each other. Moreover, in such a combination they can express themselves effectively. An example is the well-known quality circles.
The concept of participative management can be correlated with substantive theories of motivation that consider human needs, namely:
— participation in setting goals and their implementation helps to satisfy the need for achievement;
— participation in solving issues of the functioning of the organization helps to satisfy the needs for self-realization and self-affirmation;
- participation in decision making allows the employee to have an idea of what he expects as a result of his activities and what the reward for this may be.
The above theories show that today there is no canonized teaching that unambiguously explains what underlies human motivation and how motivation is determined. Each theory has a certain fundamental difference. Moreover, these theories mainly analyze the factors underlying motivation, but pay little attention to the process of motivation.
It is obvious that the system of motivation or stimulation of workers must take into account the elements of all the considered theories.
ANNOTATION
The manual systematically and consistently reveals a wide range of fundamental provisions of modern interdisciplinary humanitarian knowledge, describes conceptual and applied mechanisms of personnel motivation as the basis for increasing the efficiency and competitiveness of organizations, assesses the impact of sociocultural and gender factors on the dynamics of the value of human capital, and explores the problems of social responsibility and audit motivational state of organizations.
Recommended for training undergraduates in the following areas: psychology, pedagogy, social work, sociology, management, economics, as well as for advanced training and retraining of specialists in the system of additional education. The manual will be useful to students, graduate students, doctoral students, as well as researchers and specialists in the management of socio-economic systems.
The textbook is an electronic version of the book:
Personnel motivation in a modern organization: Textbook / Ed. ed. S. Yu. Trapitsyna. – St. Petersburg: Book House LLC, 2007. – 240 p.
Chapter 1
MODELS AND MECHANISMS OF MOTIVATION FOR LABOR ACTIVITY.
1.1. Basic theories of motivation
1.1.1. Content theories of motivation
1.1.2. Process theories and motivation mechanisms
1.2. Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation
1.3. Mechanisms for using motivation in management practice
1.3.1. Stimulating the work activity of personnel
1.3.2. Modern types of personnel incentives at business enterprises.
1.3.3. Mechanisms of moral stimulation of work activity
Control questions
Creative tasks
Literature
Literature recommended for self-study
Chapter 2
SOCIO-CULTURAL AND GENDER ASPECTS OF HUMAN CAPITAL
AS MOTIVATION FACTORS
2.1. Personnel motivation from a concept perspective
human capital
2.2. Cluster analysis of human capital
Control questions
Creative tasks
Literature
Chapter 3
MOTIVATION AND SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY
3.1. Concept and types of social responsibility
3.2. Approaches to social responsibility management
3.3. Increasing staff motivation based on ethical and moral standards
3.4. Social programs of the organization as a factor of personnel motivation
3.5. Features of social responsibility in Russian organizations
Control questions
Creative tasks
Literature
Chapter 4
AUDIT OF THE MOTIVATIONAL STATE OF THE ORGANIZATION
4.1. Goals, objectives and content of the audit of the motivational state of the organization
4.2. Development of a program and plan for auditing the motivational state of the organization
4.3. Audit areas
motivational state of the organization
Control questions
Creative tasks
Literature
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Today, staff motivation occupies a central place in the organization’s personnel management system, since it is essentially the reason for employee behavior. How motivated employees are depends on their orientation towards the organization’s goals, desire to achieve them, and ensure the necessary results. And this, in turn, is the basis for the effective operation of the organization as a whole.
The results achieved by people in the process of work depend not only on the knowledge, skills and abilities of these people. In order for all the tasks set for the organization to be achieved, it is not enough just to recruit qualified personnel and develop an effective structure for their interaction. Productive activity is possible only if workers have appropriate motivation, that is, the desire to work.
In connection with the growing understanding of the need to take into account the psychological characteristics of a person for the effective operation of organizations, the basis of modern management is the study of not only managerial, but also psychological aspects of the work motivation of personnel. Within the framework of psychology, work motivation is a set of motivating forces inherent in a person (needs, interests, intentions, motivations, etc.) associated with his work activity.
The textbook reflects the content of many lectures, but it does not pretend to be a complete presentation of the course, but is intended to help full-time students in independent preparation for seminar classes and tests.
BASIC CONCEPTS IN THE STRUCTURE OF MOTIVATION
Today, there are several approaches to defining the very concept of motivation and its components. So, H. Heckhausen defines motivation as a process of choosing between various possible actions, a process that regulates, directs action to achieve goal states specific to a given motive and supports this direction. F. Lutens says that motivation is a process that begins with a physiological or psychological deficiency or need that activates behavior or creates an impulse aimed at achieving a specific goal or reward.
Some authors point out that it is necessary to consider the concept of motivation from two points of view: 1) motivation is a system of factors that cause the activity of the body and determine the direction of human behavior. This includes such entities as needs, motives, intentions, goals, interests, aspirations; 2) motivation is a characteristic of a process that ensures behavioral activity at a certain level.
The concept of labor motivation is separately distinguished and defined as the employee’s desire to satisfy his needs (receive certain benefits) through work. And they say that then the structure of the labor motive includes: the need that the employee wants to satisfy; a good that can satisfy this need; labor action necessary to obtain a benefit; price – costs of a material and moral nature associated with the implementation of a labor action.
Thus, if we analyze the definitions of motivation from different authors, we can identify several concepts that are key in the motivation process: need, motive, incentive.
Need is a state of need for something. They activate the body, direct it to search for what the body currently needs.
The real forms of manifestation of needs that are correlated with the environment are claims and expectations. Claims represent a habitual level of satisfaction of needs that determines human behavior. Based on the same need, different claims and expectations can be formed. So, for one person, the primary nutritional need can be satisfied with the help of cheap sandwiches, while for another, its normal satisfaction involves a gourmet lunch in an expensive restaurant. Expectations specify claims in relation to the real situation and certain behavior. Based on approximately the same claims, expectations, however, can differ significantly
Motive– it is what causes certain human actions.
The process of activating a person's motives is called motivation.
Motive not only motivates a person to action, but also determines what needs to be done and how this action will be carried out. There may be one need, but different people may have different actions to satisfy it.
Thus, the initial link in the motivation mechanism is need.
Incentives act as levers of influence that cause the action of certain motives. Stimulation - awakening, intensifying, or quickening thoughts, feelings, and actions.
A fairly important point is the distinction between the concepts motive and incentive. Motive characterizes a person’s desire to receive certain benefits.
The incentive is the benefits themselves. A stimulus may not develop into a motive if it requires impossible actions from a person. For example, offering a construction team a large sum of money to build a complex bridge over a river will not motivate them to act if they do not have the necessary qualifications for this and if they do not have the equipment or anything else that is required for construction. Thus, the stimulus is directly focused on the need, its satisfaction, while the motive is the main connecting link that, under certain conditions, connects the stimulus and needs. For this connection to occur, it is necessary that the stimulus be more or less conscious and accepted by the employee.
Thus, with all the importance of incentives and stimulation from a psychological point of view, it is the motive, and not the stimulus itself, that motivates and directs human activity. Stimulus, stimulation, stimulation is something external to a person.
Stimulation is fundamentally different from motivation. The difference is that stimulation acts as a means by which motivation can be achieved.
Motivation as a process
Motivation as a process can be represented as a series of successive stages
First stage– emergence of needs. A person feels that he is missing something. He decides to take some action.
Second phase- searching for ways to provide a need that can be satisfied, suppressed, or simply not noticed.
Third stage– determination of goals (directions) of action. It is determined what exactly needs to be done and by what means. Here it is revealed what needs to be obtained to satisfy the need.
Fourth stage– implementation of the action. A person expends effort to carry out actions that open up the possibility of acquiring what is necessary to satisfy a need.
Fifth stage – receiving a reward for implementing an action. Here it is revealed to what extent the implementation of actions provided the desired result. Depending on this, the motivation for action changes.
Sixth stage– satisfaction of needs. A person either stops activity before a new need arises, or continues to look for opportunities and take actions to satisfy the need.
Theories of motivation
A systematic study of motivation from a psychological point of view does not allow us to determine exactly what motivates a person to work. However, research into human behavior at work provides some general explanations of motivation and allows for the creation of pragmatic models of employee motivation in the workplace.
The theory of motivation reached psychological maturity in the 40s. Now their western branch is divided into two groups: substantive and procedural. Content theories of motivation are based on identifying needs. The task of substantive theories is to establish the needs of employees and determine how and in what proportions to apply internal and external rewards. The task of process theories is to establish the probability of the expected result with the motivating role of needs and various possible degrees of satisfaction; they are based primarily on how people behave, taking into account their perception and cognition, how people distribute efforts to achieve goals. Process theories of motivation analyze how a person distributes effort to achieve various goals and how he chooses a specific type of behavior. Process theories believe that people's behavior is determined not only by needs. There are three main procedural theories of motivation: V. Vroom's theory of expectations, S. Adams' theory of justice, and the Porter-Lawler model.
It is important to understand that although these theories differ on a number of issues, they are not mutually exclusive.
A. Maslow's theory of needs
A. Maslow proceeds from the fact that all people constantly feel some needs that prompt them to action. He formulated three fundamental assumptions about human nature that form the basis of his theory.
- Humans are needy beings whose needs can never be satisfied.
- A state of partial or complete dissatisfaction of needs prompts a person to action (according to A. Maslow, “the best way to encourage someone to seek love is to deny him it”).
- There is a hierarchy of needs in which lower level basic needs are at the bottom and higher level needs are at the very top.
Usually a person experiences several interacting needs at once, the strongest of which determines his behavior.
A. Maslow identifies 5 main groups of human needs.
- 1. Physiological needs
These include the needs for food, sleep, clothing, shelter, and sex. Their satisfaction is vital. In relation to production, they manifest themselves as needs for wages, leave, pensions, and favorable working conditions. Workers whose behavior is determined by these needs have little interest in the meaning and content of work.
- 2. Security needs
By this we mean both physical (health protection, safe workplace) and economic security (cash income, social insurance). These needs are actualized only when physiological needs are satisfied. Satisfying security needs provides confidence in the future. They reflect the desire to maintain the position already achieved, including the level of salary and various benefits.
- 3. Social needs
They are focused on communication and emotional connections with others: friendship, love, acceptance, belonging to a group. In an organization, this manifests itself in the fact that people belong to formal and informal groups and collaborate in one way or another with work colleagues. A person motivated by social needs considers his work as a part of the activity of the entire team.
4. Esteem needs
These include both the needs for self-esteem and respect from others, including the needs for prestige, authority, power, and career. Self-esteem is usually formed when achieving a goal and is associated with the presence of autonomy and independence. The need for respect from others orients a person toward winning and receiving public recognition, reputation, status within a group, the external manifestations of which can be expressions of recognition, praise, and honorary titles.
5. Needs for self-realization
They include the need for creativity, the implementation of one’s own plans, and the realization of individual abilities. By their nature, the needs for self-realization are more individual than others.
Plus, A. Maslow divided the needs in his hierarchy into two large categories. Deficit needs cover needs at lower levels. The needs for growth and development are the needs for respect and self-realization. It should be noted that deficit needs are satisfied due to factors that are somehow external to the personality, and these include, for example, food, a healthy environment, friends and loved ones, while growth needs are inherent to the personality and its internal characteristics.
The following are possible ways to meet the growth and development needs of an organization.
Methods to meet the needs of growth and development.
Need for respect:
- constant increase in the content of employees’ work;
- effective feedback on work results and the manager’s reaction;
- high appreciation and encouragement of achieved results;
- involving subordinates in formulating goals and developing solutions;
- delegation of sufficient rights and powers to subordinates;
- promotion of subordinates up the career ladder;
- providing or supporting training and retraining of subordinates that improves their level of competence.
- providing the opportunity to realize personal and professional potential;
- assigning complex and important tasks to subordinates that require full dedication;
- encouraging and developing the creative abilities of subordinates.
Need for self-expression:
when using the model, it is necessary to carefully observe employees and try to determine their active needs; develop a motivation system in accordance with changing needs; to create situations in which an employee satisfies his needs for the benefit of the organization’s goals, the main task is to determine the psychological portrait of an employee who has one activated need and place him in a position where it will be satisfied for the benefit of the organization.
- In order for a higher level of needs to begin to influence a person’s behavior, it is not necessary to fully satisfy the needs of the lower level, because Human behavior is stimulated by more than one active need.
- The mechanism of transition of needs from one level to another is not revealed (where is the limit of saturation?).
- The process of reproduction of needs over time is not clear.
- The mechanism for identifying active (current) needs is complex.
K. Alderfer's theory of needs.
A. Maslow’s theory was further developed in the works of K. Alderfer. He made an attempt to clarify and creatively develop the theory of A. Maslow. He identified three levels of needs, which essentially coincide with the five levels of needs according to A. Maslow (see Table 1).
Table 1
Classifications of needs
In contrast to A. Maslow, who assumed the motivating influence of needs only when moving from bottom to top, i.e. when moving from lower to higher, K. Alderfer argues that such influence can go in both directions; needs of different levels can influence human behavior simultaneously
K. Alderfer tried to establish a connection between the satisfaction of needs and their activation and, as a result, identified 7 dependencies.
- The less satisfied the needs in existence, the stronger they manifest themselves.
- The weaker the social needs are satisfied, the stronger the effect of the needs in existence.
- The more fully the needs for existence are satisfied, the more actively social needs manifest themselves.
- The less satisfied social needs are, the more their effect intensifies.
- The less the growth needs are satisfied, the stronger the social needs become.
- The more fully the social needs are satisfied, the more the needs of personal growth are actualized.
- The more or less the growth needs are satisfied, the more actively they manifest themselves.
D. McClelland's theory of motivational needs.
In his theory, D. McClelland tried to identify the most important among the “secondary needs”, which are analyzed subject to sufficient material security. He argues that any organization gives the employee the opportunity to realize three higher-level needs: in power, success and belonging. On their basis, a fourth need arises: to avoid troubles, that is, obstacles in the realization of the three named needs.
All employees have needs for power, success and belonging. However, in different people these needs are expressed differently or exist in certain combinations. How they combine depends on the person's natural qualities, personal experience, situation and culture.
The need for success is not expressed equally among all employees. A success-oriented person typically desires autonomy and is willing to take responsibility for the results of their work. He wants to know about the specific results of his work, strives to set realistically achievable goals, avoids unreasonable risks, and enjoys the process of work itself, especially its successful completion.
The need for success is subject to development, which can be used for work efficiency.
The need for power is expressed in the desire to influence other people, control their behavior, as well as the willingness to be responsible for others. This need is expressed in the desire for a leadership position. It has a positive impact on leadership effectiveness. Such people have high self-control, they are dedicated to their organization and are passionate about the work.
The need to belong is manifested in the desire to communicate and have friendships. Employees with a strong need to belong perform well primarily in tasks that require high levels of social interaction and good interpersonal relationships.
Based on his research, D. McClelland identified 3 types of managers.
- Institutional managers with a high level of self-control. They are characterized by a greater need for power than for group affiliation.
- Managers whose need for power prevails over the need for belonging, but in general these people are more open and socially active.
- Managers whose need for belonging prevails over the need for power are also open and socially active.
D. McClelland's main conclusion is that a combination of all three types of managers can be beneficial for an organization.
Methodology for using the model in practice: people with a need for power should be trained for leadership positions and should not be appointed to positions below average rank; set complex tasks and delegate enough authority to solve them to people with a need for success, guarantee them specific rewards based on the results of their work; create and maintain informal communications for and through people with a strong need for affiliation, since they show the greatest loyalty to the company.
- The model does not show the mechanism for satisfying lower-level needs, which, as practice shows, are no less active than higher ones.
- There is no clarity regarding methods for identifying active needs. The question arises about the adequacy of using the projective methodology proposed by McClelland to determine the characteristics of the motivational sphere of the individual.
- The classification of individual needs is quite simplified.
The theory of two factors by F. Herzberg.
This theory has been described by many authors. It was created by F. Herzberg based on interview data taken in different workplaces, in different professional groups and in different countries. Interviewees were asked to describe situations in which they felt complete satisfaction or, conversely, dissatisfaction with their work.
The answers were classified into groups. Studying the collected material, F. Herzberg came to the conclusion that job satisfaction and dissatisfaction are caused by various factors.
Job satisfaction is influenced by:
● achievements (qualifications) and recognition of success;
● work as such (interest in work and task);
● responsibility;
● promotion;
● opportunity for professional growth.
He called these factors “motivators.”
Job dissatisfaction is influenced by:
● control method;
● organizational policy and administration;
● working conditions;
● interpersonal relationships in the workplace;
● earnings;
● uncertainty about job stability;
● the impact of work on personal life.
These external factors are called “context factors” or “hygiene” factors.
Motivators that cause job satisfaction were associated with the content of the job and were caused by the individual’s internal needs for self-expression. Factors causing job dissatisfaction were associated with job disadvantages and external conditions. These factors can easily be associated with unpleasant sensations that must be avoided.
If hygiene factors create a bad situation, then workers will experience dissatisfaction, but even at best, these factors do not lead to great job satisfaction, but rather a neutral attitude. Hygiene factors in themselves do not cause satisfaction, but their deterioration gives rise to dissatisfaction with work.
Job satisfaction is caused only by motivational factors, the positive development of which can increase motivation and satisfaction from a neutral state to a “plus”.
In order to prevent dissatisfaction with work, the presence of hygiene factors is sufficient, while increasing labor productivity is achieved with the help of motivators.
F. Herzberg made the following conclusions:
- lack of hygiene factors leads to job dissatisfaction;
- the presence of motivators can only partially compensate for the lack of hygiene factors;
- under normal conditions, the presence of hygiene factors is perceived as natural and does not have a motivational effect;
- maximum positive emotional impact is achieved with the help of motivators and in the presence of hygiene factors.
The main practical conclusion is that managers should take a differentiated and very careful approach to the use of various incentives and, when the needs of lower levels are satisfied, not rely on hygiene factors as the main ones. Conversely, time and money should not be wasted on using motivators until the hygiene needs of employees are met.
it is necessary to ensure the presence in the organization of two groups of factors simultaneously; compile a list of factors for employees to independently determine preferences; motivate their work in accordance with the data received.
- employees should regularly learn about the positive and negative results of their work;
- it is necessary to create conditions for employees to grow their own self-esteem and respect;
- employees should be given the opportunity to set their own work schedule;
- employees must bear certain financial responsibility;
- employees must report for work in the area entrusted to them.
Disadvantages of the theoretical model.
- The premise “satisfaction leads to action” is hypothetical and has not been proven experimentally. The correlation between satisfaction and labor productivity has not been proven.
- No objective methods have been proposed for analyzing the presence and severity of two groups of factors in an organization.
Process theories of motivation.
V. Vroom's theory of expectations.
It is based on the proposition that the presence of an active need is not the only and necessary condition for motivating a person to achieve a given goal. A person is always, one way or another, motivated and makes a choice between alternative forms of behavior. A person must also hope that the type of behavior he chooses will lead to satisfaction or the acquisition of what he wants.
The choice of one or another form of behavior depends on three variables: valency- IN, instrumentality- And and expectations- ABOUT.
Valence is a measure of attractiveness, goal value, reward, it varies from –1 to +1.
Instrumentality is the employee’s estimated probability of achieving the goal. It also ranges from -1, the action does not lead to achieving the goal, to +1, the action ends in achieving the goal.
Expectation - this is the subjective probability that the action (D) leads to the achievement of an intermediate result (P1). It is measured from 0 to 1.
V. Vroom's model of expectations can be represented in the form of a diagram reflected by three formulas.
- Valence P1 = Instrumentality (P1 – P2) * Valence P2
This formula means that the attractiveness of the intermediate result P1 is equal to the probability that result 1 will lead to result 2, multiplied by the attractiveness of result 2 (P2), i.e., to the final goal.
- Effort (U) = Expectation (D1 – P1)* Instrumentality (P1 – P2) * Valence P2
According to this formula, work effort equals the product of the expectation that action 1 will lead to outcome 1 multiplied by the attractiveness of outcome 1.
- Effort (U) = Expectancy (D1 – P1) * Instrumentality (P1 – P2) * Valence P2
This formula should be read starting from the end. Labor effort and the willingness to apply it are determined by the attractiveness of the final goal and its feasibility, that is, a subjective assessment of the likelihood of implementation. More specifically, this means: the employee strives to achieve the final goal, so at the beginning he evaluates its attractiveness (valence), then evaluates how much the means at his disposal (P1) allow him to achieve the final goal (instrumentality of P1 for P2). After this, the employee also evaluates the probability that his action will achieve result 1 (the expectation that D1 will lead to P1), and finally, he gives an overall assessment of how likely his possible action is to lead him to the goal. This assessment directly determines the strength of his motivation, that is, the degree of willingness of the employee to put in his labor efforts to achieve the goal.
Methodology for applying the model in practice: compare the proposed remuneration with the needs of employees and bring them into line; establish a firm relationship between labor results and remuneration; create a high but realistic level of results expected from employees.
V. Vroom's theory is based on mathematical justification and empirical research. Despite its considerable complexity, it has both theoretical (expands the understanding of the mechanism of motivation) and practical significance. In particular, it provides a number of practical recommendations that must be taken into account when working with personnel:
1. An employee will be more productive when he perceives a high probability that his personal efforts will lead to high overall work achievements. If people feel that there is no direct relationship between the effort expended and the results obtained, then, according to expectancy theory, motivation will weaken (Effort - Result).
- If a person is confident that the results achieved will be rewarded, but with a reasonable amount of effort he cannot achieve these results, then motivation in this case will be weak.
- If a person does not feel a clear connection between the results achieved and the desired encouragement or reward, the motivation to work will weaken (Result – Reward).
- If the value of the reward received for a person is not too great, then expectancy theory predicts that the motivation to work will weaken in this case (Valence).
Disadvantages of the theoretical model:
- The individual characteristics of people and organizations are not fully taken into account.
- The methodological and conceptual foundations and the technical side of applying the model in management practice have not been sufficiently developed.
- The difficulty of implementing a differentiated approach to personnel due to the high subjectivity of assessments and expectations.
S. Adams' theory of justice.
This theory postulates that people subjectively determine the ratio of reward received to effort expended and then relate it to the rewards of other people performing similar work. If the comparison shows imbalance and injustice, that is, a person believes that his colleague received more compensation for the same work, then he experiences psychological stress; if he believes that he received more than his colleague, then a feeling of guilt arises. As a result, it is necessary to motivate the employee, relieve tension and imbalance. Normal labor relations between employee and employer are established only when there is distributive justice:
reward = reward
employee A's contribution employee B's contribution
In an effort to get rid of an unpleasant psychological state, an employee can act as follows:
- reduce or increase your labor contribution in the hope of achieving justice, “for such a small salary you can do nothing at all”;
- change your income, for example, increase it by earning extra money on the side or by talking with your boss;
- try to re-evaluate the cost-income ratio;
- influence the employee selected as a comparison standard, for example, offer him to work better or worse;
- choose another person for comparison and calm down if the ratio is not in his favor;
- resign from the organization.
Thus, those employees who feel that they are underpaid compared to others may either begin to work less intensively or seek higher remuneration. Those same employees who believe they are overpaid will strive to maintain the intensity of work at the same level or even increase it.
Methodology for using the model in practice: The main implication of equity theory for management practice is that until they feel they are being fairly compensated, they will tend to reduce their work intensity. However, the perception and assessment of fairness are relative. People compare themselves with other employees in the same organization or with employees in other organizations doing similar work. Since the productivity of employees who perceive their compensation as unfair (due to the fact that someone else doing similar work is paid more) will decline, they need to be told and explained why this difference exists. It is necessary to explain to employees the dependence of remuneration on the results of work (its intensity, efficiency), and to explain the prospects for growth in terms of effort and reward. It should be explained, for example, that a higher-paid colleague gets paid more because he has more experience, which allows him to produce more. If the difference in remuneration is due to differences in performance, then it is necessary to explain to employees who are paid less that when their performance reaches the level of their colleagues, they will receive the same increased remuneration.
Some organizations are trying to solve the problem of employees feeling that their work is being unfairly assessed by keeping payment amounts secret. Not only is this difficult to do technically, but it also makes people suspect injustice where there is none. In addition, if employees' earnings are kept secret, the organization risks losing the positive motivational impact of salary increases associated with promotion.
One of the practical recommendations for managers arising from this theory and empirical research carried out on its basis concerns the impact of underpayment and overpayment on piecework and time-based forms of remuneration on motivation. This influence can be presented in the form of a table (see Table 2).
![](https://i2.wp.com/myakushkin.ru/images/publications/tab4-2.gif)
Disadvantages of the theoretical model.
- Determining the fairness of remuneration is a subjective process on both the employee’s and management’s part.
- The model relies more on meeting the needs of different levels with the help of material rewards.
Porter-Lawler model.
Lyman Porter and Edward Lawler developed a complex process theory of motivation that organically combines the ideas of the theories of A. Maslow,
F. Herzberg, D. McClelland, and the ideas of the theory of expectations of V. Vroom and the theory of justice of S. Adams. The Porter–Lawler model can be represented schematically (see diagram 2)
![](https://i1.wp.com/myakushkin.ru/images/publications/tab4-3.gif)
The logic of this model is as follows:
(1) A person determines for himself the attractiveness and value of the reward expected for achieving a work goal, (2) assesses the likelihood of achieving the goal and receiving the reward. (3) This determines his labor effort, the desire to complete the work. (4) Goal achievement is influenced by the individual abilities of the employee, as well as (5) role requirements, i.e. their perception of their job responsibilities. (6) Achieving the goal, i.e. the result obtained entails internal rewards: pride, self-esteem (7a) and external rewards (7b). (8) Remuneration is assessed as fair or unfair. (9) Intrinsic and extrinsic rewards, as well as the assessment of their fairness, determine job satisfaction, which in turn has an inverse effect on the assessment of the value of a new reward (indicated by the dotted line). In addition, the results achieved (6) influence the subsequent assessment of the likelihood of future rewards (2).
When analyzing this model, one can formulate several main conclusions.
- The value of the expected reward is determined by both internal, arising from the work process itself, and external, in relation to the task, rewards.
- The effectiveness of a task depends on the employee's assessment of the actions required to complete the task and his ability to carry them out, which emphasizes the need for a clear formulation of goals and a preliminary determination of the employee's suitability for the task assigned to him in order to best perform it and provide the employee with satisfaction from the solution process.
- The feeling of fairness of the reward affects the degree of satisfaction from it.
Disadvantages of the theoretical model:
In practice, difficulties arise in understanding the psychological foundations of motivation and the correct selection of remuneration for an employee.
There are a large number of largely different approaches to work motivation: some focus on the needs underlying the motives for work, others on the factors that determine a particular need, and others describe the conditions and stages of the emergence of the motive. However, the similarity of these approaches lies in the general idea that a person’s work behavior is always stimulated by certain internal forces associated, first of all, with the awareness and acceptance of meaning (what the work is done for) and content (what is experienced by the employee as something important and essential, related to his needs) labor. These approaches together provide a more complete and comprehensive understanding of work motivation as a psychological phenomenon, and are also an important theoretical basis both for creating methods for diagnosing work motivation and for the practical development of management programs and stimulating the effectiveness of employees and managers.
Types of motivation
There are different ways to classify types of motivation.
. He highlights extrinsic intense(internal, associated with personal dispositions: needs, attitudes, interests, drives, desires, in which actions and deeds are performed “of the free will” of the subject).
Dodonov B.I. identifies types of motivation depending on person's orientation at work(see diagram 3):
ways to motivate and allocate direct indirect
Normative motivation
Forced motivation
Supporting factors:
- money;
- conditions;
- tools for work;
- safety;
- reliability.
Motivating factors:
- confession;
- height;
- achievements;
- responsibility and authority.
External situation;
Own capabilities;
Control method;
Organizational climate;
Culture, group norms;
The logic of this model is as follows:
(1) A person determines for himself the attractiveness, the value of the reward expected for achieving a work goal,(2) assesses the likelihood of achieving a goal and receiving a reward.(3) This determines his labor effort, the desire to complete the work.(4) Achieving the goal is influenced by the individual abilities of the employee, as well as(5) role requirements, i.e. their perception of their job responsibilities.(6) Achieving the goal, i.e. the result obtained entails internal rewards: pride, self-esteem(7a) and extrinsic rewards(7b) . (8) Remuneration is assessed as fair or unfair.(9) Intrinsic and extrinsic rewards, as well as the assessment of their fairness, determine job satisfaction, which in turn has an inverse effect on the assessment of the value of a new reward (indicated by the dotted line). In addition, the results achieved(6) influence subsequent assessments of the likelihood of future rewards(2) .
When analyzing this model, one can formulateseveral main conclusions.
1. The value of the expected reward is determined by both internal, arising from the work process itself, and external, in relation to the task, rewards.
2. The effectiveness of a task depends on the employee's assessment of the actions required to complete the task and his ability to carry them out, which emphasizes the need for a clear formulation of goals and a preliminary determination of the employee's suitability for the task assigned to him in order to best perform it and provide the employee with satisfaction from the solution process.
3. The feeling of fairness of the reward affects the degree of satisfaction from it.
Disadvantages of the theoretical model:
In practice, difficulties arise in understanding the psychological foundations of motivation and the correct selection of remuneration for an employee.
General conclusion on theories of motivation: There are a large number of largely different approaches to work motivation: some focus on the needs underlying the motives for work, others on the factors that determine a particular need, and others describe the conditions and stages of the emergence of the motive. However, the similarity of these approaches lies in the general idea that a person’s work behavior is always stimulated by certain internal forces associated, first of all, with the awareness and acceptance of meaning (what the work is done for) and content (what is experienced by the employee as something important and essential, related to his needs) labor. These approaches together provide a more complete and comprehensive understanding of work motivation as a psychological phenomenon, and are also an important theoretical basis both for creating methods for diagnosing work motivation and for the practical development of management programs and stimulating the effectiveness of employees and managers.
Types of motivation
There are different ways to classify types of motivation.
So, Ilyin E.P. offers as a parameter for classification conditionality of the motivation process.It highlights extrinsic(due to external conditions and circumstances) and intense(internal, associated with personal dispositions: needs, attitudes, interests, drives, desires, in which actions and deeds are performed “of the free will” of the subject).
Dodonov B.I. identifies types of motivation depending on person's orientation at work(see diagram 3):
![](https://i0.wp.com/myakushkin.ru/images/publications/tab4-4.gif)
Ruchka A.A., and Sakada N.A. propose to classify motivation depending on ways to motivate and allocate direct(involves direct impact on humans) and indirect motivation (based on the influence of external factors).
Direct motivation includes: normative and compulsory.
Normative motivation represents a direct impact on the employee’s personality in order to change his value system and thereby form a desirable system of work motives. This influence is accomplished using such methods and means as persuasion, suggestion, infection, agitation, demonstration of example, and the like. If this method of management influence is successful, management goals are internalized by the object of management and become its own goals. Thus, the personal interest of personnel in the effective results of their own work, in the successful production activities of their team and enterprise, is formed and then manifested in business.
Forced motivation- this is a method based on the threat of deterioration in meeting certain needs of employees in the event of their failure to comply with the requirements of the subject of management. In practice, it is implemented with the help of orders, regulations, instructions, instructions, requirements, and negative sanctions.
In terms of operational management, forced motivation has a number of advantages. Firstly, it does not require depth of penetration into the subjective world of workers. To realize it, it is enough to use the basic, elementary needs that are essential for all people. Secondly, it is as efficient as possible. Thirdly, this method of influencing personnel does not require the expenditure of any real life benefits.
However, there are a number of shortcomings of a psychological and social nature inherent in this managerial method of forming work motives. Powerful motivation can cause in workers, in addition to the desire to eliminate the threat from the subject of management, progressive fear, fear of losing the achieved position in work. This can cause both constructive activity and conflicts, neuroses, violations of labor discipline, and staff turnover.
In general, this method of influence is focused on the strict subordination of employees to the subject of management, its goals and requirements, which is fraught with certain negative consequences: forced motivation can limit the opportunities for self-realization of employees, restrain their creativity, and do not contribute to the development of innovative activity of subordinates. All this indicates that forced motivation in itself is not the optimal managerial way of creating desirable work motives.
Stimulation is the influence on external circumstances with the help of benefits - incentives that encourage a person to behave in a certain way. A distinctive feature of stimulation in comparison with methods and means of direct motivation is that with it, a person’s behavior is regulated by influencing not the individual himself, but the conditions of his life, the circumstances external to the individual that give rise to his interests and needs. This creates a situation of personal choice, which employees implement in accordance with their own preferences. In order to influence this system of preferences in the direction desired for management purposes, the subject of management strives to change external circumstances in relation to the object of management. For this purpose, incentives are used such as material and monetary (salary, bonuses, additional payments, allowances), material and non-monetary incentives (production and technical, organizational, sanitary and hygienic, temporary, household and so on), non-material (praise, honorary titles , government awards and so on).
Personnel incentive methods
Labor incentives are a rather complex procedure. There are certain requirements for its organization: complexity, differentiation, flexibility and efficiency.
Complexity implies the unity of application of intangible and material, collective and individual incentives, the meaning of which depends on the system of approaches to personnel management, the experience and traditions of the enterprise. Complexity also implies the presence of disincentives.
Differentiation means an individual approach to stimulating different layers and groups of workers. Approaches to wealthy and low-income workers must differ significantly. Approaches to regular and young workers should be different.
Flexibility and efficiency are manifested in the revision of incentives depending on changes occurring in society and the team.
Thus, creating an appropriate motivation mechanism is not easy. The practice of using direct and indirect types of management shows that indirect management influences give the greatest effect, however, for short-term work and emergency management tasks, authoritative motivation is more effective, and direct motivation is optimal over long time intervals. As a result, the use of incentives is not only advisable, but must be combined in practice with the use of methods and means of authoritative and direct work motivation. Only together, these methods of influencing the work behavior of employees constitute an effective system of labor motivation.
Stimulation is, first of all, a change in an element of the work situation that affects a person’s behavior in the world of work. In modern times, in the practice and theory of management, this method of influencing a person’s work motivation is considered the most acceptable and promising, since the created working conditions indirectly stimulate the employee to realize his labor and creative potential, to express himself as an individual and an employee at the same time.
Incentives can be material or intangible. The most common management mistake is the absolutization of material incentives and motives. Although these incentives are very important, they still do not fully satisfy the employee’s needs, for example, the needs of the highest level of motivation (the need for respect, self-actualization).
Currently, there are two main approaches to stimulating personnel - comprehensive methodological and adaptation-organizational.
The first of them includes a complex of four main groups of methods aimed at optimizing the motivational potential of work. Based on the strength of the production effect they cause, they are arranged in the following sequence: economic methods, target method, method of designing and redesigning work (“enrichment of labor”), method of participation (involvement of employees - participatory method).
Economic methods are based on material rewards for work performed, the most important part of which is wages. The salary structure includes base rates, bonus payments, and social programs.
The base rate - a constant part of earnings - must be sufficient to attract workers with the necessary qualifications and training to the company. Social benefits and payments play a large role in the total income of employees. Currently, the range of benefits provided to employees is quite wide: paid holidays, vacations, rest breaks, medical insurance at the enterprise, additional pension insurance, accident insurance, assistance in advanced education, professional training and retraining, provision of employees for use recreation and entertainment facilities and so on.
The company can also make additional payments (bonuses, rewards, prizes, etc.) based on the goals included in the labor incentive program. Innovation-oriented companies, for example, pay great attention to organizing the stimulation of creativity. Thus, IBM encourages innovation proposals that find application. If the proposal is accepted, its author receives 25% of the total savings for two years after its implementation.
A whole incentive system has been developed in organizations in the USA, Japan, Italy, and Germany. This includes free food, invitations to out-of-town trips, free lunches in expensive restaurants, increasing the attractiveness of the place of work (bright colorful stands, fountains, lighting, flowers, birds and small animals).
The most common form of material incentives is a profit-sharing system, the essence of which is that a bonus fund is formed from a predetermined share of profits, from which employees receive regular payments.
Employee profit sharing systems include the Scanlon system, which is based on the distribution between employees and the company of savings in wage costs resulting from labor productivity - output per person.
No less popular is the Rucker system, based on bonuses to workers for increasing the volume of conditionally pure products per dollar of wages.
A widely used remuneration system is the Iproshear system, which consists of additional payments to employees for saving working time (in man-hours) spent on producing a given volume of products.
Within the framework of an integrated methodological approach, a target stimulation method is also used, which is based on two important psychological principles. First, giving goals a clear and precise form in itself leads to increased motivation. Secondly, more difficult goals usually have greater motivating power than easily achievable ones, since a difficult goal is considered by a person as a challenge to his abilities, and the conviction that it is possible to achieve it increases his self-esteem of his capabilities and his own importance. Based on this, goals must be clearly formulated, mobilizing, but realistically achievable.
The method of designing and redesigning work (“labor enrichment”) is to increase motivation by changing and improving the organization of work.
There are three possible options for restructuring work:
- rotation - a number of jobs are interchanged at regular intervals between employees in order to eliminate the problems of excessive repetition, fatigue from high-precision and detailed work;
- expansion - the employee is given more diverse interrelated tasks of the same professional level in order to reduce monotonous work;
- job enrichment - expands its scope vertically to cover tasks that require greater qualifications, greater responsibility for decision-making and greater freedom in taking individual initiatives.
The method of involving personnel is based on the idea of as fully as possible involving performers in the very process of organizing their work and managing it. As a result, the activity (including creative) and initiative of employees is liberated, motivation and responsibility increase. Procedurally, this method requires giving the employee a voice in solving problems, effective delegation of rights regarding the ability to make decisions, and determining appropriate actions to resolve the problem. As an example, we can refer to the experience of the American company Digital Equipment, where self-government groups have been formed in the general accounting and reporting department that resolve issues of work planning, hiring new employees, holding meetings, and coordinating with other departments. When using this method, the professional maturity of workers, their ability and readiness to work increases. This has a direct impact on increasing work motivation and improving the organization’s performance.
The second approach to stimulating an organization's personnel is called adaptation-organizational. However, it can only be conditionally separated from what was discussed above, since it largely uses the same methods and principles of creating motivation. The specificity of the adaptation-organizational approach is that the system of motivating influences is, as it were, distributed over the main phases of its activity - from hiring and related professional adaptation to the final stages of a professional career.
A factor of great motivating significance, which has a long-term effect, is the employee’s first impression of the organization at the time of hiring, therefore it is necessary to organize the first days and even hours of the employee’s stay in the organization accordingly, to ensure the stage of primary adaptation. This includes providing a gentle work regime, softer evaluation criteria, guardianship and mentoring.
The next aspect of optimizing the motivating function correlates with the mature stages of a professional career, with the achievement of a high level of professional competence. Here, the entire system of already discussed participatory methods (method of employee involvement) for ensuring motivation should come to the fore. Another means of motivation provided by this approach during this period is to ensure “elasticity of working time” - giving the employee partial right to plan his own working time, manage it depending on his individual characteristics and life situations.
In the organizational-adaptation approach, a large role is given to the method of informing about the results of work, that is, feedback. It has been proven that the need for information about the quality of work is an independent incentive for its implementation. Information is associated with the practice of “non-directive consultations” (kindly listening to a subordinate who finds himself in a state of frustration or strong emotional stress), interviews “over the head” of management (periodic conversations of employees with the manager of their manager), open door programs (personal appeal from an employee to the manager of any rank) and so on.
Thus, labor stimulation is a system of measures that indirectly influence the employee’s personality, the change and formation of his work motivation, in order to arouse his desire to work conscientiously, professionally and in an organized manner, fully realizing his personal and business potential.
Currently, there are a huge number of methods and forms of incentives, however, it should be remembered that the development of mechanisms for motivating employees should not be carried out “according to a template.” It is always necessary to take into account the characteristics of the organization (its history, traditions, specific activities, etc.), as well as the individual motives of the employees working in it.
Thus, work motivation can be considered both as a process of influencing a performer in various ways and means, aimed at encouraging him to work, and as a result of this influence, reflecting the resulting set of work motives.
Factors influencing staff motivation
There are several points of view regarding the factors influencing staff motivation.
Utkin E.A., Kochetkova A.I. identify supporting and motivating factors.
Supporting factors:
- money;
- conditions;
- tools for work;
- safety;
- reliability.
Motivating factors:
- confession;
- height;
- achievements;
- responsibility and authority.
If both groups of factors are absent, the work becomes unbearable.
If only supporting factors are present, job dissatisfaction is minimal.
If only motivating factors are present, the employee loves the job, but cannot afford it.
If both groups of factors are present, the job brings maximum satisfaction.
This approach to identifying factors influencing motivation is quite close to F. Herzberg’s theory of two factors.
In addition, Utkin E.A., Kochetkova A.I. highlight demotivating factors: shouting and rudeness of management, chaos, lack of understanding of responsibility and authority. The authors note that any action towards employees can be both a motivating and demotivating factor. It is important to evaluate this action in relation to specific people. A number of demotivating factors are a consequence of the leader's personality or lack of understanding by him of what actually motivates subordinates.
Ilyin E.P. identifies psychological factors (in other words, education) involved in a specific motivational process and calls them motivators (motivational determinants). He says that they become arguments for decision-making when explaining the basis of action and action. Listed below are those highlighted by E.P. Iliin. motivator groups:
Moral control (presence of moral principles);
Preferences (interests, inclinations);
External situation;
Own capabilities;
Own state at the moment;
Conditions for achieving the goal (expenditure of effort and time);
The consequences of your action or deed.
In the process of motivation, many motivators remain only “known”, “understood”, and those that acquire the greatest significance for a person and lead to the formation of motivation become “really effective”.
Mackenzie R. A. identifies the following factors:
Control method;
Organizational climate;
Culture, group norms;
Factors related to the person: the employee's self-image, personality, abilities and skills, values and needs, as well as expectations formed on the basis of his earlier life experiences.
Very much attention in the issue of factors influencing the motivation of employees is given to job satisfaction and it is said that it influences motivation. Although there is also the opposite opinion. So Handle A.A. and Sakada N.A. describe the study of V.A. Yadov, which states that “a study of job satisfaction (dissatisfaction) is “the most inadequate method for studying the motivation of work.” Lutens F. also says that there is no clear direct connection between satisfaction and productivity.
Therefore, the question of the influence of job satisfaction on staff motivation remains unresolved, but one way or another this factor takes place in the issue of employee motivation and requires consideration.
In general, among all the listed factors, two factors can be identified that require special consideration when building and adjusting the motivation system in a particular organization.
The first such factor is the organizational culture of the enterprise (the system of norms and rules of behavior that exists in the organization, relating to the interaction of management and staff, communication networks, methods of conflict resolution, decision-making methods, etc.). There are 4 types of organizational cultures.
- Bureaucratic - the organization is directed by strong leadership, roles and responsibilities are prescribed and fixed, leadership determines leaders and possible directions for development, information and data are controlled and access to them is limited.
- Organic - the organization is guided by agreement with a common idea, functions and responsibilities are implemented with almost automatic precision, leadership sets the context and purpose, minimizing other interference, information and data are regarded as shared knowledge that does not need to be externalized.
- Entrepreneurial - the organization is directed by free initiative, functions and responsibilities are obtained as people make them, management gives people to do what they see fit, are used for individual achievements.
- Participative - the organization is guided by inclusive discussions, roles and responsibilities are shared and rotated as needed, leadership acts as a catalyst for group interaction and collaboration, information and data are assessed and shared openly
If the motivation system developed in the organization conflicts with the behavioral characteristics of real employees, the system must be adjusted. Attempts to impose motives from above without taking into account the existing organizational culture are ineffective. Below are the most characteristic features of the motivational sphere of employees for different types of organizational cultures (provided that employees accept and share the organizational culture).
- With the dominance of a bureaucratic organizational culture, the incentive for employees is primarily economic interest (material incentives, money, etc.).
- When organic organizational culture dominates, employees are primarily concerned with social needs and gain a sense of self-identity only in relationships with other people. Employees tend to respond positively to the initiatives of their superiors when they take into account the social needs of their subordinates and, first of all, the need for public recognition.
- If an entrepreneurial organizational culture prevails, the most effective way to motivate employees is a challenge that opens up a good opportunity for their self-realization. At the same time, the challenge should be proportionate to the potential of the employees, and the manager should provide a decent reward in case of success.
- In a participative organizational culture, each individual is unique, so standard management approaches do not work, but must be formulated in relation to a specific person and a given situation.
The second factor is leadership style and deserves the most attention in the literature. Thus, V. Tarasov says that “the direct impact on satisfaction with working conditions is exerted by the features of employee management - the leadership style and the system of norms and rules of behavior that exist in the organization - organizational culture.” Korienko V. also points out that leadership style is a motivating factor.
The concepts of leadership style and organizational culture of the organization should be clarified.
It is necessary to clarify the concepts of leadership style and organizational culture.
Leadership style is a stable set of traits of a leader, manifested in his relationships with subordinates. There are three main leadership styles.
- Authoritarian – sole decision-making by the manager, little interest in the employee as an individual.
- Democratic – characterized by the manager’s desire to develop collective decisions; the manager jointly agrees with the employees on the goals of the organization and takes into account the wishes of the employees.
- Liberal - characterized by the leader’s desire to avoid making decisions and shift this task to others. The manager gives complete freedom of action to his employees.
At this stage of the study, there is all the necessary information to build a diagnostic model of the organization’s personnel motivation system, which will be the subject of the next chapter.
Thus, factors that in one way or another influence staff motivation can be presented as follows (see Table 3).
![](https://i2.wp.com/myakushkin.ru/images/publications/tab4-5.gif)
Methods for studying work motivation
When using certain managerial influences in practice, managers need to take into account the internal and external motivations of employees’ labor behavior, that is, to know what specifically motivates them to work conscientiously and proactively, and what, on the contrary, causes indifference, or even a negative attitude towards work.
Understanding the inner world of a person, the basis of his actions and actions related to work, the ability to predict and influence his work behavior requires studying the motivational makeup of the individual, that is, finding out the answer to such questions: what needs during work activity are typical for a person, and what their hierarchy? In what ways and by what means does he prefer to satisfy this or that need? What situations and conditions usually trigger this or that work behavior? What is the personality's orientation? The answer to most of these questions can only be obtained by using a variety of methods for studying work motives.
Work motivation as an object of psychodiagnostic research has some features that are determined, first of all, by the specificity of the motives of work activity themselves, the sources of obtaining information about work motives, and methods of studying them.
The motive for work behavior is based on the need associated with work activity. However, there is no one-to-one correspondence between the system of needs and the system of motives. Both motives and needs have their own qualitative specificity and cannot be identified. The same need can be realized through different motives, and the same motive can realize different needs. Thus, a whole class of motives corresponds to a need, and a motive can be included in different need classes. As a result, the diagnosis of motives and needs is not identical, although it is closely interrelated.
Each work motive has its own motivational weight, which characterizes the degree of contribution that this motive makes to the realization of a particular need. However, motives associated with a specific need are not just a sum of motives, but a hierarchical system in which there are certain levels of dominance of motives. Determining the motivational weights of motives makes it possible to discover the general characteristics of the subject of need. Identification of the level of dominance of motives makes it possible to clarify the specific specifics of the substantive content of needs.
In the psychodiagnostics of work motivation, a number of indicators are used - indicators that allow one to judge the qualitative or quantitative characteristics of work motives. The most common ones include:
- direct assessment of a person’s ideas about the causes or characteristics of work behavior;
- identifying a system of incentive values relevant to labor motives;
- time of decision-making in case of motivational conflict of choice of alternatives;
- assessment of the effectiveness of activities;
- dynamics of human labor behavior over a long period;
- products of activity.
The most natural source of obtaining information about people’s work motives is the work itself - its process and result. By observing and analyzing an employee’s work activity, one can answer the question of what aspects of work he values most, what work values he is trying to achieve, what he doesn’t like about work, what he is indifferent to.
Another source of information about the work motives of employees may be the results of relevant psychological studies conducted using various psychodiagnostic techniques. As a rule, to study the motives of work, direct methods of psychodiagnostics are used - questionnaires, surveys, interviews. Methods of this type are based on the first indicator (direct assessment), although methods may differ in methods of construction and other features. The principle of these methods is as follows: a person is offered a certain list of work motives, needs, interests, and so on for selection or evaluation.
The most common method of studying work motives is to study employee satisfaction with their work. Methods for studying satisfaction, as a rule, use three types of questions: questions to identify the degree of satisfaction with an individual’s work; questions about identifying opinions regarding job satisfaction and dissatisfaction; questions about the individual's possible subsequent actions.
When formulating answer options for questions of the first type, various scales are used: two-term (yes - no), three-term (satisfied - not completely satisfied - not satisfied), five-term (completely dissatisfied - rather dissatisfied - both satisfied and not satisfied - rather satisfied - completely satisfied), seven-membered and ten-membered.
In addition to satisfaction questionnaires, there are also various methods for calculating job satisfaction indices - the V.A. Work Situation Assessment Index. Yadov, satisfaction index V.S. Maksimenko and others.
Another common way to study work motivation is to register the subjective significance (value) for employees of work in general and its individual aspects, since the more valued elements of the work situation are motivating factors for effective work. Typically, researchers who support this method of studying work motives are interested in three questions in this area:
- labor factors that are most significant for various categories of workers;
- the nature of the dependencies between more valued factors and the characteristics of various categories of workers;
- the nature of the relationships between value preferences and labor productivity.
Currently, there are quite a large number of direct psychodiagnostic techniques that study various aspects of work motivation. These include:
- methods aimed at studying the structure of labor motivation - the method of K. Zamfir; methodology, V.K. Gerbachevsky;
- methods for studying job satisfaction in general and its individual components -. questionnaire T.L. Badoev, as well as the method of paired comparisons and the technique of V.A. Rozanova;
- diagnostics of dominant needs - a test based on the motivational theory of F. Herzberg; a technique whose conceptual basis is D. McClelland's theory of motivation;
- studying the professional orientation of an individual both in terms of professional interests and in terms of attitudes related to work - differential diagnostic questionnaire (DQ) E.A. Klimova; questionnaire developed by O.B. Godlinik; a review of Jackson's professional interests; introspection of Holland's professional inclinations; overview of Kuder's professional interests; indicative questionnaire proposed by V. Smekail and M. Kucher;
- studying the motives for choosing a profession - questionnaire E.P. Ilyina; methodology for studying the motives for choosing a medical profession A.P. Vasilkova.
Methods for direct diagnosis of work motivation have a number of disadvantages. Because they describe hypothetical situations, it can be difficult for a person to answer what they would do. In addition, not all motives are conscious, and a person cannot say anything definite about them. A serious disadvantage is also that responses to questionnaires are subject to conscious or unconscious falsification. A person often strives for socially approved answers, that is, the answers are influenced by the factor of social desirability. However, these methods are quite simple to implement, compact, and do not require much time, which is why they act as the most convenient tool for diagnosing work motivation in production conditions.
Conclusion
Personnel motivation occupies one of the central places in the personnel management of an organization. A positive attitude of employees towards work and the associated high efficiency, business initiative and conscientiousness are achieved only if the employee is personally interested in his activities. This interest is due to persistent motivation to work, reflecting a certain structure of a person’s work motives.
Labor motivation in its psychological understanding is a hierarchized set of labor motives that determines the employee’s desire to satisfy any needs (receive certain benefits) through work activity. Each person has a specific structure of work motivation that is specific to him, depending on his individual characteristics, experience, and the nature of acquired labor standards and values.
Knowledge of this structure is valuable. It allows, firstly, to understand the nature of employee expectations associated with work activity, secondly, to anticipate (with a certain degree of probability) the emergence of certain facts of labor behavior, and thirdly, to successfully manage the activities of teams and rationally use methods and means of influencing not only people’s labor behavior, but also the labor situation as a whole, allowing employees to work in it comfortably and in accordance with their needs.
Currently, in psychology there are several theoretical directions in the field of personnel motivation. Among them, one can distinguish substantive and procedural theories, differing in their approach to understanding the process of motivation and the factors that determine it.
For psychologists working in the field of personnel management, issues of motivation are among the most significant, since it is important not only to recruit effective employees, but also to provide them with all the necessary conditions for fruitful activity.
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Transcript
1 MOTIVATION OF WORK ACTIVITY Textbook Recommended by the educational and methodological association of Russian universities for education in the field of management for bachelors and masters in the areas of “Personnel Management” and “Management” KNORUS MOSCOW 2016
2 UDC BBK M85 Reviewers: L.V. Sankova, Head of the Department of Economic Theory and Labor Economics, Saratov State Technical University. Yu.A. Gagarin, Doctor of Economics. Sciences, R.A. Nabiev, Head of the Department of Economics and Enterprise Management, Astrakhan State Technical University, Doctor of Economics. sciences, prof. Team of authors: Mineva Oksana Karlovna, Gorelova Olga Igorevna, Kochetkova Natalya Nikolaevna, Mordasova Tatyana Aleksandrovna, Mironov Stanislav Konstantinovich M85 Motivation of work activity: textbook / team of authors. M.: KNORUS; Astrakhan: ASU, Publishing House "Astrakhan University", p. ISBN DOI / A wide range of fundamental provisions and modern interdisciplinary knowledge in the field of personnel motivation from the point of view of HR management is revealed, conceptual and applied mechanisms of personnel motivation are described as the basis for increasing the competitiveness of organizations. Designed for bachelors and masters in the areas of “Personnel Management” and “Management”. UDC BBK MOTIVATION OF LABOR ACTIVITY Certificate of Conformity ROSS RU. AE51. H from Publishing Format 60 90/16. Conditional oven l. 10.0. LLC Publishing House KnoRus, Moscow, st. Kedrova, 14, bldg. 2. Tel.: Publishing house “Astrakhan University”, Astrakhan, st. Tatishcheva, 20. Tel./fax, tel Printed in Contact LLC, Moscow, Podbelskogo proezd 4th, building 3. Astrakhan State University, Astrakhan University Publishing House, 2016 Team of authors, 2016 ISBN Publishing House LLC "KnoRus", 2016
3 CONTENTS Introduction... 4 CHAPTER 1. WHAT YOU NEED TO KNOW ABOUT MOTIVATION AND STIMULATION OF STAFF What is motivation? Psychological personality types and their forms Motivation of individual work Comparative analysis of motivation models Developments of domestic psychologists in the field of motivation Practical possibilities for studying motivation at work Management tale about human resources and motivation of traders Motivation of group activities Incentive policy Practice of forming an incentive policy in Japanese management and its Russian analogue Possibility of application Japanese experience in Russia CHAPTER 2. MANAGERIAL COMMUNICATIONS IN AN ORGANIZATION AS AN ADDITIONAL MOTIVATIONAL STRUCTURE How to form an effective motivational mechanism in an organization. The essence of the motivational mechanism Elements of the external and internal environment that influence the work motivation of the organization's personnel Methods of motivation The process of creating and making individual and collective decisions as an additional motivational structure Organizational systems for solving problems Methods of rational problem solving Information systems of organizational management Collective approaches to decision making Practical tasks for independent mastering the material Cases for independent work References
4 INTRODUCTION Today, effective personnel management is the first major task for any company. Employees of organizations, their competencies, experience and skills are practically the main source of increasing the performance of an enterprise, and, accordingly, optimizing costs. The personnel motivation system must be designed in such a way as to maintain a balance between all the necessary principles of organizational management and individual development of human resources. There is the concept of “optimal labor incentives,” which should serve as the basis for creating a motivational mechanism that has the principles of fairness, transparency and objectivity, and this should be confirmed by the employees themselves, since it is created specifically for them. This textbook contains an up-to-date theoretical block on the issues of personnel motivation in modern organizations and practical test materials on the study of individual employee motivation, which will allow HR specialists to best develop incentive mechanisms aimed at increasing the labor efficiency of each employee and the entire team as a whole. The manual reveals in detail and systematically a wide range of fundamental provisions and modern interdisciplinary knowledge in the field of personnel motivation from the point of view of HR management, describes conceptual and applied mechanisms of personnel motivation as the basis for increasing the competitiveness of organizations. The purpose of this textbook is to form a knowledge system on the motivation of individual and group work, the principles of developing incentive policies, the possibility of introducing some elements of foreign experience on the issues under study, the use of information technologies in the field of personnel management and psychological monitoring of personnel. The workshop on the presented chapters of the manual is presented with case situations, business games, psychological tests, including the Eysenck test, and other materials that allow students to optimally develop management skills. 4
5 The structure of the training manual is built quite logically and determines the transition from revealing many aspects of the essence of motivation to the rules for developing a management communication mechanism in an organization. The first chapter reveals such important topics as psychological personality types, comparative analysis of motivation models, and the practice of forming incentive policies in Russian and Japanese organizations. The second chapter introduces the reader to the essence of an effective motivational mechanism, factors influencing the motivational environment, the process of creating individual and collective decisions, methods of rational decisions as an additional motivational structure, as well as the use of information systems in the field of organizational personnel management. Throughout the course of study, the authors propose to actively use the practical tasks and cases proposed at the end of the manual to master the material. As a result of studying the material in the manual, students will develop the following skills: understand and apply in practice the principles and fundamentals of forming a motivation system, material and non-material incentives for personnel; have the ability to effectively organize individual and group work with the possibility of combination; know the procedure for applying effective disciplinary sanctions; be able to describe the functionality of personnel and departments at different levels; be able to comprehensively consider and evaluate the tasks of increasing the efficiency of use and development of personnel; be able to develop a personnel development strategy and professional ethics; be able to assess the personnel potential of an organization, conduct diagnostics and monitor personnel development; be able to develop and implement a motivation policy taking into account the factors of the external and internal environment of the organization, its strategic goals and objectives. 5
6 CHAPTER 1. WHAT YOU NEED TO KNOW ABOUT MOTIVATION AND STIMULATION OF STAFF 1.1. What is motivation? The study of the development of theoretical ideas about the content and regulation of motivational processes in the world of work allows us to determine that with the socio-economic development of society, the direction of the vector of motivational influences has changed. From the initial focus strictly on increasing labor productivity, that is, stimulating physical activity, motivation gradually began to focus on improving the quality of work, stimulating creative activity, initiative and retaining employees in the enterprise. Management, or enterprise management, is the process of planning, organizing, motivating and controlling, necessary in order to formulate and achieve the goals of the organization by influencing other people 1. Motivation is one of the main functions of any manager, and it is with its help that influence is exerted on enterprise personnel. The function of motivation is that it influences the workforce of the enterprise in the form of incentives for effective work, social influence, collective and individual incentive measures 2. These forms of influence activate the work of management subjects, increase the efficiency of the entire management system of the enterprise and organization. The essence of motivation is that the company’s personnel perform work in accordance with the rights and responsibilities delegated to them, in accordance with the management decisions made. When planning and organizing work, the manager determines what exactly the organization he leads must accomplish, who, how and when, in his opinion, should do it. If the choice of these decisions is made effectively, then the manager has the opportunity to coordinate the efforts of many people and jointly realize the potential capabilities of a group of workers. The main task from the point of view of the motivational process of employees is 1 Meskon M., Albert M., Khedouri F. Fundamentals of Management. M.: Delo, S. Borisov A. B. Large economic dictionary. M.: Book World, S.
7 to make them not so much owners of the means of production as owners of their own labor force 3. Managers translate their decisions into action by putting into practice the basic principles of motivation. People working in modern organizations are usually much more educated and wealthy than in the past, so the motives for their work are more complex and difficult to influence. The effectiveness of motivation, like other problems in management activities, is always associated with a specific situation. In classical foreign and domestic literature on management, motivation has various definitions: 1. Motivation is the process of motivating oneself and others to act to achieve personal goals or organizational goals. Motivation is the process of a person’s conscious choice of one or another type of behavior, determined by the complex influence of external (incentives) and internal (motives) factors. In the process of production activity, motivation allows employees to satisfy their basic needs by performing work duties. Labor motivation is the employee’s desire to satisfy needs (receive certain benefits) through work activity. 6. Let us consider the basic concepts that explain the essence of motivation and stimulation of work. Motive of work Motive is a conscious motivation to achieve a specific goal, understood by an individual as a personal necessity 7. A labor motive is a direct motivation of an employee to activity (work), associated with the satisfaction of his needs. The motive for work is formed only in the case when labor activity is, if not the only, then the main condition for obtaining benefits. Assessing the likelihood of achieving goals is of great importance for the formation of work motives. If obtaining a benefit does not require much effort, or it is very difficult to obtain, then motive 3 Organizational Personnel Management / ed. A. Ya. Kibanova. M.: INFRA-M, S Meskon M., Albert M., Khedouri F. Fundamentals of management. M.: Delo, S. Utkin E. A. Fundamentals of motivational management. M.: Association of Authors and Publishers “TANDEM”, S. Travin V.V., Dyatlov V.A. Enterprise personnel management. M.: Delo, S. Enikeev M.I. General psychology. M.: PRIOR, S
8 labor is most often not formed. The formation of a labor motive occurs if the subject of management has at his disposal the necessary set of goods that corresponds to the socially determined needs of a person. To obtain benefits, the personal labor efforts of the employee are required. Labor activity allows the employee to obtain these benefits with lower material and moral costs than any other type of activity. The group of leading motives that determine the employee’s behavior is called the motivational core (complex), which has its own structure, which varies depending on the specific work situation 8. The strength of the motive is determined by the degree of relevance of a particular need for the employee. The more urgent the need for a particular benefit, the stronger the desire to obtain it, the more active the worker will be. 9. The motives of work are varied. They differ in the needs that a person seeks to satisfy through work; according to the benefits that a person will need to satisfy his needs; at the price that the employee is willing to pay to obtain the desired benefits. What they have in common is that the satisfaction of needs is always associated with work. Several groups of labor motives can be distinguished, forming a single system. These are motives for the meaningfulness of labor, its social usefulness, status motives associated with public recognition of the fruitfulness of work, motives for obtaining material benefits, as well as motives focused on a certain intensity of work. The benefit becomes a stimulus for labor if it forms the motive for labor. The practical essence of the concepts “motive of labor” and “stimulus of labor” is identical. In the first case, we are talking about an employee seeking to obtain benefits through work (motive), in the second, about a management entity that has a set of benefits necessary for the employee and provides them to him subject to effective work activities (incentive). Types of labor motives Labor motives can be divided into biological and social. Biological motives correlate with physiological urges and needs (hunger, thirst, sleep, etc.). That is, for example, in order to satisfy the feeling of hunger, a person must do something 8 Organizational Personnel Management / ed. A. Ya. Kibanova. M.: INFRA-M, S Leontyev A.N. Activity. Consciousness. Personality. [Text] - M.: Knowledge, S
9 simple work: picking fruits, catching fish, or earning money in another way and using it to buy food. But what primarily drives him to work is a biological motive. Social motives include the following: collectivism (the need to be in a team) is characteristic of the Japanese style of personnel management, but has a strong position in Russia; personal self-affirmation (self-expression) is typical for a large number of workers, mainly young or mature; the motive of independence is inherent in workers who are ready to sacrifice stability and high earnings in exchange for the attitude of being a master and having their own business; the motive of reliability (stability) is the opposite of the previous one; the motive for acquiring new things (knowledge, things) underlies marketing and is used by producers of new goods and services; The motive of justice runs through the entire history of civilization. Failure to maintain fairness leads to demotivation; The competitive motive is genetically inherent in every person. This is the basis for organizing competition in an enterprise. Needs An important factor of a person is the system of his needs, motives, interests, that is, what determines the reasons for a person’s behavior and helps explain the decisions made. From a psychological point of view, an individual’s need is the awareness of the absence of something that causes a person to have an urge to action 10. In relation to work activity, a need is a person’s state, which is the source of his active activity and is created by the need that he feels in relation to the objects necessary for its existence 11. The number and variety of needs is enormous. Needs can be classified as primary and secondary. Primary needs are caused by human physiology, and they are usually innate. These are the needs for food, water, air, sleep, which ensure the existence of humans as a biological species. Secondary needs are psychological in nature. 10 Meskon M., Albert M., Khedouri F. Fundamentals of management. M.: Delo, S. Uznandze N.D. Psychology research. M. : Nauka, S.
10 They are developed in the course of development and life experience. They are much more diverse than the primary ones, and largely depend on the psychological development of the individual, living conditions, social norms accepted in society and the group. For example, needs for success, respect, affection, power, or the need to belong to someone or something. Primary needs are genetically determined, while secondary needs usually emerge with experience. Since people have different acquired experiences, the secondary needs of people differ to a greater extent than the primary ones. Needs cannot be directly observed or measured. Their existence can only be judged by people's behavior. Needs are found in the motives that motivate a person to activity and become the form of their manifestation. The entire set of needs of the individual constitutes the source, the motive of the individual’s activity. When a need is felt by a person, it awakens in him a state of aspiration 12. Since the number of human needs is very diverse, in relation to work activity, the most common factors that influence effective motivation are identified. The structure of such factors can be A. Maslow’s “hierarchy of needs” and D. McClelland’s theory of acquired needs, described in the next chapter. The ways to achieve effective work in enterprises are related to the motivations of people. An urge is a feeling of lack of something that has a certain direction. It is a behavioral manifestation of a need and is focused on achieving a goal. A goal in this sense is something that is perceived as a means of satisfying a need. When a person achieves such a goal, his need is satisfied, partially satisfied or unsatisfied. The degree of satisfaction obtained from achieving a goal influences a person’s behavior in similar circumstances in the future. People tend to repeat behaviors that they associate with need satisfaction and avoid behaviors that are associated with insufficient satisfaction. This fact is called the law of result. A simplified model of motivation through needs, described by Shapiro 13, is depicted in the figure Marshall A. Principle of Economic Science. M.: Progress, T. 1. S. Shapiro S. A. Motivation and stimulation of personnel. M.: Gross Media,
11 Needs (lack of something) Motives or motives Behavior (action) Result (goal) Full satisfaction Partial satisfaction Lack of satisfaction Fig. 1. Simplified model of motivation through needs In this regard, imagine the following situation, described by the famous Soviet philosopher A.F. Losev in the book “Philosophy, Mythology, Culture”. Discussing the nature of empiricism, the author tells the following story. A medieval doctor in Germany visits a patient with fever. The patient was a tailor by profession. He wanted ham, and the doctor allowed him to give him a piece of ham. After some time the patient recovered. The doctor wrote in his diary: “Ham helps with fever.” Having come to another patient with fever, who was a shoemaker by profession, the doctor, armed with positive experience, ordered to give him ham. But the patient died. Then the doctor wrote in his diary: “Ham helps tailors with fever, but does not help shoemakers.” Losev concludes: “Can such a doctor be called an empiricist, no, he cannot, because he is simply a fool!” But within the framework of this book, this situation is instructive precisely in the sense that the law of result is not always justified. Because needs motivate people to want to satisfy them, managers must create situations that allow people to feel that they can satisfy their needs through certain types of behavior that lead to the achievement of organizational goals. In all cases, knowing the true motives of an employee’s behavior will help to avoid the loss of a good specialist and prevent a possible conflict in the team. eleven
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