What is society? Definition and meaning of the word. Properties of society as a system
BARBADOS - E. SOCIETY AND CULTURE
To the article BARBADOS
In the past, there were pronounced divisions of society along racial lines, but by the 1970s, racial segregation had been largely eliminated. Race still plays a role in career choices; Whites, for example, hold key positions in big business and land ownership, while the majority of doctors, lawyers, teachers and civil servants, as well as manual workers, are of African descent.
Barbados has retained cultural ties with the former metropolis, perhaps closer than other island states of the British West Indies. Many Barbadian citizens work in the UK. To this day, many customs and traditions of African ancestors are preserved in Barbados. Here you can hear the unique, sadly drawn-out Barbadian songs and concerts of noise orchestras using empty metal barrels and canisters as musical instruments, and also see the performance of the incendiary folk dance "limbo".
Education in Barbados is maintained at a high level; OK. 97% of the adult population is literate. In 1989, primary school attendance was approx. 28.5 thousand children, and average - approx. 24 thousand. In 1963, the Department of Arts and Sciences of the University of the West Indies was opened in Barbados, and in 1968 a national college was opened. The country's museum and historical society, founded in 1933, houses geological collections, marine life exhibits, historical documents, and decorative arts. There is a public library system with its center in Bridgetown.
Collier. Collier's Dictionary. 2012
See also interpretations, synonyms, meanings of the word and what BARBADOS - E. SOCIETY AND CULTURE is in Russian in dictionaries, encyclopedias and reference books:
- SOCIETY in Wiki Quotation Book:
Data: 2008-06-13 Time: 02:41:51 * Society lives not by negative ideas, but by positive ideas. (Saint-Simon) * If not... - SOCIETY
(Society; Gesellschaft). In contrast to the collective, which Jung considered as a repository of a person’s mental potential, the concept of “society” presupposes the presence of: a civilizing... - CULTURE in the Dictionary of Analytical Psychology:
(Culture; Kultur) - Jung’s term is used as a synonym for society, that is, a certain differentiated and sufficiently self-aware group, ... - CULTURE in the Newest Philosophical Dictionary:
(Latin cultura - cultivation, upbringing, education) - a system of historically developing supra-biological programs of human activity, behavior and communication, which act as a condition for reproduction... - BARBADOS in the Directory of Countries of the World:
An independent state located on the island of the same name in the eastern part of the West Indies. The island lies east of St. Vincent and the Windward Islands. ... - CULTURE in the Directory of Settlements and Postal Codes of Russia:
399633, Lipetsk, ... - SOCIETY
ECONOMIC DEPENDENT - see DEPENDENT ECONOMIC COMPANY ... - SOCIETY in the Dictionary of Economic Terms:
ECONOMIC SUBSIDIARY - see SUBSIDIARY ECONOMIC COMPANY ... - SOCIETY in the Dictionary of Economic Terms:
PARTICIPATING - see DEPENDENT ECONOMIC COMPANY ... - SOCIETY in the Dictionary of Economic Terms:
MIXED - see MIXED SOCIETY ... - SOCIETY in the Dictionary of Economic Terms:
RURAL - see RURAL SOCIETY ... - SOCIETY in the Dictionary of Economic Terms:
LIMITED LIABILITY (00 0) - in accordance with the civil legislation of the Russian Federation - one of the organizational and legal forms of a legal entity: established ... - SOCIETY in the Dictionary of Economic Terms:
WITH UNLIMITED LIABILITY OR GENERAL PARTNERSHIP - an association of two or more individuals and legal entities for the purpose of organizing and ... - SOCIETY in the Dictionary of Economic Terms:
WITH ADDITIONAL RESPONSIBILITY - in accordance with the civil legislation of the Russian Federation - one of the organizational and legal forms of a legal entity: established by one or ... - SOCIETY in the Dictionary of Economic Terms:
SIMPLE - see SIMPLE SOCIETY... - SOCIETY in the Dictionary of Economic Terms:
CLASSIFICATION - see CLASSIFICATION SOCIETY ... - SOCIETY in the Dictionary of Economic Terms:
CIVIL - see CIVIL SOCIETY ... - SOCIETY in the Dictionary of Economic Terms:
OPEN JOINT STOCK COMPANY - see OPEN JOINT STOCK COMPANY ... - SOCIETY in the Dictionary of Economic Terms:
CLOSED JOINT STOCK COMPANY - see CLOSED JOINT STOCK COMPANY ... - SOCIETY in the Dictionary of Economic Terms:
JOINT STOCK COMPANY - see JOINT STOCK COMPANY ... - CULTURE in the Dictionary of Economic Terms:
ECONOMIC - see ECONOMIC KUG ... - CULTURE in the Dictionary of Economic Terms:
LEGAL - see LEGAL CULTURE... - CULTURE in Statements of famous people:
- CULTURE in the Dictionary One sentence, definitions:
- this is not the number of books read, but the number of understood ones. Fazil... - CULTURE in Aphorisms and clever thoughts:
This is not the number of books read, but the number of understood. Fazil... - CULTURE in the Basic terms used in A.S. Akhiezer’s book Critique of Historical Experience:
- the definition of a person, taken from the point of view of his universality, the most important aspect of reproduced activity, society, human history. K. - concentrated, organized... - CULTURE in the Pedagogical Encyclopedic Dictionary:
(from Latin cultura - cultivation, upbringing, education, development, veneration), a historically determined level of development of society, creative powers and abilities of a person, expressed ... - SOCIETY
in a broad sense - a set of historically established forms of joint activity of people; in a narrow sense - a historically specific type of social system, ... - CULTURE in the Big Encyclopedic Dictionary:
(from Latin cultura - cultivation, education, development, veneration), a historically certain level of development of society, creative powers and abilities of a person, expressed ... - in the Big Encyclopedic Dictionary:
the sixth letter of the Russian alphabet; goes back to the Cyrillic letter E (“is”), which, in addition to the sound, also had a digital value of 5. Ё@ is the seventh letter ... - BARBADOS in the Big Encyclopedic Dictionary:
(Barbados) a state in the West Indies, on the island. Barbados, in the group of M. Antilles. 430 km2. Population 260 thousand people (1993), mostly ... - CULTURE
(from Latin cultura - cultivation, upbringing, education, development, veneration), a historically determined level of development of society and man, expressed in types and ... - in the Great Soviet Encyclopedia, TSB:
the seventh letter of the Russian alphabet. Introduced into use by N.M. Karamzin (1797). Indicates in writing: 1) the vowel “o” after soft consonants... - in the Great Soviet Encyclopedia, TSB:
the sixth letter of the Russian alphabet. It received its modern style at the beginning of the 18th century, under Peter I, after the introduction of the civil alphabet. Previously had... - BARBADOS in the Great Soviet Encyclopedia, TSB:
(Barbados), a state in the West Indies, on the island. Barbados, in the M. Antilles group. Area 430 km2. Population 253 thousand people. (1968, ... - SOCIETY
I. The absolute state of the old order and the contemporary political doctrine, so hostile to each other, converged in recognizing the state as the only rational... - in the Encyclopedic Dictionary of Brockhaus and Euphron:
\[It is not possible to establish general rules on the basis of which some words should be written through E, others through E. ... - BARBADOS in the Encyclopedic Dictionary of Brockhaus and Euphron:
the easternmost of the Lesser Antilles or Caribbean islands, having a surface of 430 sq. km and 173,522 inhabitants (including ... - SOCIETY
- CULTURE in the Modern Encyclopedic Dictionary:
(from the Latin cultura - cultivation, upbringing, education, development, veneration), a historically certain level of development of society, creative powers and abilities of a person, expressed ... - in the Modern Encyclopedic Dictionary:
-
ё [ё], the seventh letter of the Russian alphabet, introduced in 1797 by N.M. Karamzin. Usually two dots above the letter are written in special texts... - SOCIETY in the Encyclopedic Dictionary:
in a broad sense - a set of historically established forms of joint activity of people in a narrow sense - a certain type of social system (for example, ... - CULTURE in the Encyclopedic Dictionary:
[from Latin cultura cultivation, processing] 1) in a broad sense, everything that is created by human society thanks to the physical and mental labor of people, ... - CULTURE in the Encyclopedic Dictionary:
y, w. 1. The totality of human achievements in production, social and intellectual relations. Material k. History of culture. K. ancient peoples.||Wed. CIVILIZATION... - CULTURE in the Encyclopedic Dictionary:
, -y, w. 1. The totality of production, social and spiritual achievements of people. History of culture. K. ancient Greeks. 2. Same as... - SOCIETY
SOCIETY OF EASEL ARTISTS, see... - SOCIETY in the Big Russian Encyclopedic Dictionary:
SOCIETY OF OLD BOLSHEVIKS All-Union, societies. organization that united members. Bolshevik Party since pre-rev. experience. Existed in 1922-35 under Istpart, then under ...
Society and economy are institutions that are inextricably linked. The existence of modern society is impossible without a certain economic concept that takes into account emerging trends.
Human needs
Man, like any other creature, has needs. Their nature is different: some of them appeal to the need for communication and contact with other people, some are associated with self-development and human realization, some have a simpler nature and are associated with the need to maintain personal hygiene, nutrition and water consumption, a sense of security, etc. These needs are, for the most part, intangible in nature. However, there is also a large group of needs associated with the world of material things. In them, in fact, is hidden in society - the satisfaction of human material needs.
Benefits as a tool to satisfy needs
Despite the fact that humanity has more than a centuries-old history of existence, the axiom about the need to satisfy certain needs remains unchanged. Perhaps, only the tools that are used in this process change. They can be called the word “good”. In a simple sense, this term covers everything that a person himself considers useful for himself.
So, wanting to provide himself with everything necessary for a normal and comfortable life, a person strives to obtain certain material or intangible benefits. In principle, some of them have already been indicated above, such as communication, self-realization and others. If we are talking specifically about material goods, then we mean, first of all, essential things, for example, clothing, housing, food. The economy and the development of society have led to the modernization and improvement of material goods, and if earlier a person could show off in front of his fellows with a necklace from the ears of his enemies, now there are cars, luxurious mansions and jewelry made of precious materials for this. The nature of the phenomenon remains essentially the same: a person seeks to visualize his status in society and thereby show his superiority. Only the attributes have changed.
The main problem of the economy
Having found out that a person has certain needs for the satisfaction of which he uses goods, we approach the obvious conclusion. Economics in the life of society performs a supporting function, answering the question of what goods need to be created, thereby satisfying human desires and needs. But creating something requires materials and human resources. This can be considered the main problem of the economy and, at the same time, the reason for its existence.
The economy of modern society, like the past, is trying to solve a key problem, namely, how to correctly distribute resources in order to produce the amount of goods necessary for humanity. After all, as we can know from textbooks on natural history, not all resources of our planet are inexhaustible. Of course, the sun invariably continues to shine, and the wind continues to blow, and this will be the case, if not always, then for a very long time. These two resources can be considered inexhaustible. However, there is another group whose resources are exhaustible. They, in turn, are divided into renewable (represented by flora and fauna), not fully renewable (resources whose consumption rate exceeds the rate of their restoration) and non-renewable (mineral, land, fossil resources).
Transition from industrial to post-industrial society
From the beginning to the middle of the 20th century, a trend towards the development of industrial areas of the economy was visible in society. Heavy metallurgy, widespread deforestation and a mining boom in mines and mines became widespread. However, almost immediately certain problems of a planetary scale began to emerge. Air pollution and the extinction of certain species of flora and fauna have raised the question of establishing some control over the use of natural resources. It became obvious that such irresponsible and brazen exploitation could, in just a few hundred years, lead to the complete depletion of vital materials and resources. Therefore, the economic vector towards the end of the 20th century. has changed, and society is trying to move to a post-industrial model, within which the non-productive sector of the economy will come to the fore.
Society and economy in the state
Obviously, adherence to any specific behavioral model requires strict control and supervision. In this aspect, the connection between the economy and the state is obvious. The latter takes on the function of a governing body, trying to regulate economic relations, while taking into account the needs of the society living in a given state. To do this, it creates regulatory bodies and issues regulations governing relations in this area. We should not forget that it is beneficial for the state itself to maintain the economy at the proper level, because it is able to exist only thanks to the financial and political support of society.
Thanks to the above, you can understand what economics is and its role in the life of society. The relationship outlined between them, as well as with the institution of the state, suggests that humanity simply needs to find the right balance, given the finiteness of most of the resources of our planet. We can conclude that, at the moment, society consumes too many goods and resources. This is not so necessary, because it is not very difficult for a person to do without expensive phones and cars. But it will be much more difficult for him without clean air and water. And many scientists are trumpeting with all their might that our planet is about to be on the verge of a man-made disaster, unless humanity can curb its appetites. I would like to believe that this will still happen, and we will be able to find harmony with ourselves and nature.
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Society is a stable and self-developing association of people connected by the need to satisfy common needs and interacting with each other on the basis of social norms.
Society is a complex self-developing system of connections between people and social relations. That is, society presupposes interaction between people, which is expressed in the fact that people enter into social relations. Society does not exist outside of interaction and social relations.
Considerationsociety as a system of social relations, the basis of which is economic (material), political and spiritual (cultural) relations, allows:
first of all, approach it specifically historically, highlight various socio-economic formations (slave-owning, feudal, capitalist, socialist society);
Secondly, identify the specifics of the main spheres of public life (economic, political, spiritual);
Thirdly, clearly define the subjects of social communication (personality, seven nation, etc.).
In society, it is not biological, but social laws that operate primarily.
Signs of society :
1. is a union of people interacting with each other to satisfy common needs that are significant to them. These are needs, for example, for communication, food, safety, etc. These needs can be satisfied most effectively only through coordinated activities. This does not mean that there are no social contradictions in society caused by the discrepancy between private, individual interests. Individual interests of people will vary, since all people are not the same from a psychological, physical point of view, as well as their abilities and moral principles.
2. this is the interaction of people endowed with will and consciousness. In society there must be meaningful, conscious, volitional relationships and relationships with each other. People realize the “benefit” and the need to exist in precisely this form of organization as a society.
3. characterized by special stability. It is conditioned objectively, since the needs that underlie the unification of people into society, its formation, exist constantly and require daily satisfaction.
4. self-sufficiency. Those. society is capable of creating and recreating through its own activity everything necessary for itself: both material and spiritual benefits. Thus, society is not part of a larger social system.
5. the presence of power and special norms for regulating social relations. Any interaction of elements requires certain rules and laws. People, uniting in a society, must also follow certain norms, rules of behavior and interaction developed by society itself, which make it possible to realize individual and public interests and ensure a certain orderliness of social relations. But it is necessary to take into account that the created norms may not suit one or another group of people, which leads to their violation. Therefore, in order to ensure compliance with the developed norms, social power is organized in society, capable of subordinating a person to the established rules.
6. presence of culture, which gives spiritual meaning to human life, unifies human desires and aspirations.
Spheres of public life that determine the necessary types of mutual activity: 1). material 2). spiritual 3). organizational (communicative).
Together with society there arises social power is an organized force that ensures the interaction of various social groups with the ability to subordinate to its will.
Society cannot do without social institutions.
Social institutions- these are stable social associations, communities and groups that perform necessary functions and interact with each other on the basis of various social norms.
Social connections in them are determined by the organization of management, that is, it is precisely the need to satisfy certain interests, i.e. performing functions in the field of management underlies the formation and activities of a social institution. These connections are institutional, i.e. Social institutions are created precisely as associations of people.
Social community is a collection of people characterized by the conditions of their life that are common to a given group of interacting individuals. Social communities can be divided into types, the most common of which are classes, layers and groups. Concept social group is one-order.
Their emergence is due to the objective need of society for special regulation in the spheres of social relations and social activities. Each more or less formalized institution has its own goal, i.e. the range of group or public interests and needs to which the activities of the institute are directed. The diversity of social institutions is determined by the differentiation of social activities into various types: economic, political, ideological, cultural, etc.
Social institutions include community, clan, family, nations, classes, castes, social and professional groups, city population, religious concessions, labor collectives, education system, family media, etc. The first largest political institution was the state.
Based on the nature of the organization, formal and informal institutions are distinguished. The activities of formal institutions are based on strictly established regulations (law, charter, job descriptions).
For example: Social strata are large groups of people that differ from each other in their position in the social structure of society (in terms of income, property, social rights and privileges). Caste is a social group whose membership is determined solely by birth. Estate is a social group that has rights and responsibilities fixed by custom or legal law and inherited.
Externally, a social institution looks like a collection of persons and institutions, equipped with certain material means, performing a specific social function. Social institutions perform the function of social management and social control in society. Each social institution appears in connection with the emergence of a certain need in society, in order to satisfy certain needs of members of society. The functional purpose of a social institution is connected with this.
Each social institution can be analyzed with:
functional side (to implement what functions it was created, i.e. to satisfy what needs of what part of society)
external (structural) side (who is included in a given social institution, by what criteria certain individuals or institutions are included in a social institution)
internal (substantive) side (this is a system of certain rules of behavior, social norms on the basis of which the activities of a social institution are built)
For example, Family: is created for the purpose of procreation, people are united on the principle of consanguinity, interaction is built on the basis of family norms. Judicial system: created for the administration of justice, consists of courts, acts on the basis of the law. State: created for the purpose of administering and ensuring law and order, integrating society, the political organization of society represented by the state. bodies and officials, acts on the basis of the law.
Social institutions are thus characterized by objectivity (they arise in response to the objective needs of society) and historicity (they arise in the process of historical development).
The conditions for the emergence of social institutions are:
emergence of social need
availability of resources (material, organizational)
the presence of a sociocultural environment (people with relevant interests)
existence of a procedure for formation and activities
Transl. from English V.V.Lvova. In the collection: “And these are evil, mortal sins...”: Love, eroticism and sexual ethics in pre-industrial Russia (X - first half of the 19th century). M.: Ladomir, 1999.
Translation according to the editor: Levin Eve. Sex and Society in the World of the Orthodox Slavs, 900 - 1700. Ithaca; L.: Cornell University Press, 1989.
"Unnatural" sex
Definition of sodomy
In church law and penitential literature, a lot of derogatory epithets are used to denote intercourse in rear positions: “sodomy”, “unnatural”, “ugly”, “monstrous”. The same words have been applied from time to time to other types of sexual intercourse. Anal intercourse between men was also considered “unnatural,” although other forms of homosexual relations were not given such a label. As we already know, vaginas
Sex between husband and wife was condemned as “sodomy” if the man took the woman from behind or if the woman was in a dominant position “on top.” Incest between close relatives (including marriage) was similarly called “unnatural”194. There seemed to be no way to distinguish “sodomy” from “unnatural” sin. Since such names could be used to label a very wide range of behavior, in the absence of clarification it is not always clear what kind of sin is meant. With such unclear definitions, the size of penances does not help, for they range from a three-day fast to a four-year period195.
Among the Orthodox Slavs in the Middle Ages, the understanding of the essence of “unnatural behavior” seems to have nothing to do with the modern use of this term. The very concept of “sodomy” arose from the biblical story about the sinful cities of Sodom and Gomorrah (Gen. 18: 20 - 19: 29). This story does not specify the nature of the sins that led to the destruction of these cities, so that scientists for many centuries could only guess about them. Early Jewish and Christian interpretations of these sins stated that male homosexuality topped the list of vices. Among the learned clergy of the medieval West, the sin of Sodom was associated with something “monstrous” and “unnatural,” which was borrowed from Aristotelian philosophy. “Unnatural sex” was understood as any sexual behavior that, according to medieval science, was absent in the animal kingdom, and this included homosexual relations between men (regardless of technique), heterosexual anal intercourse and non-creative sex. However, medieval thinkers also believed that what nature offers sexually for humans is not enough: animals do not enjoy the missionary position and do not abstain from incest. Church jurists in the West, including the Venerable Saint Thomas Aquinas, developed an alternative definition of “unnatural” sex that did not rely solely on the Bible or Aristotle. The sin “against nature,” they argued, lies in the practice of sexual intercourse of a kind that precludes conception. Thus, heterosexual vaginal intercourse "in the posterior positions" would be classified as "natural" in the same way as incest; for in both cases
Conception is quite possible in teas. "Unnatural" sex would then include acts ranging from masturbation to heterosexual anal penetration and all forms of homosexuality. Since “unnatural” sex was considered inferior to any form of “natural” intercourse, masturbation, perhaps the most common type of sexual violation, became a much more serious sin than incest with one of the parents. The logical sequence of such reasoning in practice gave rise to absurdity, at least from a legal and penitential point of view. However, the definition of “unnatural” sex or “sodomy” as non-creative acts, usually involving anal or oral-genital contact, has stood the test of time and has become part of the modern vocabulary and element of civil law.
None of these current definitions of “sodomy” or “unnatural” sex corresponds to their actual understanding in medieval Slavic sources. Slavic authors perceived the destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah as retribution for all sexual sins in general, and not for any specific form: “Fornication is worse than all other evil deeds. Other sins are outside the body, but fornication defiles the body. The defiled ones increased in number in Sodom and Gomorrah, and they could not bear the radiance of the Lord, and therefore were burned with fire and molten brimstone.”197 One cannot help but be tempted to see in this terminology only something derogatory, intended to contemptuously denote any disgusting sexual transgression. Moral texts opposed “sodomy,” describing it in the most frightening terms and seeking its roots in foreign, non-Christian influences198. Violations labeled as "sodomy" or "unnatural sex" tended to attract severe penances and fines. However, other serious violations such as rape, adultery and fourth marriages were never accompanied by such epithets. Moreover, according to the list of imposed penances, these sins were more vile than those of Sodom199.
Upon careful analysis, a certain pattern emerges, according to which certain sexual acts fall under the heading of “unnatural.” “Unnatural” intercourse challenges the established order of the universe and society. Men should not be sexually submissive to each other; an adult man has no right to take
assumes a passive sexual role and cannot strive to give another man a similar role. In the same way, a man cannot satisfy his lust with an animal: interaction must be limited to a circle of people. It is destructive to the divinely sanctioned social order to have sex with a member of one's own family, and therefore incest is "unnatural." It is wrong for a woman to dominate the man whom God has ordained to be her master, so intercourse with the woman on top falls under the category of “sodomy.” It is wrong to sexually exploit a woman as a man (“masculinely”) through postvaginal or anal penetration; women should perform exclusively female sexual roles. In general, “unnatural” sex changed established social relations and for this reason constituted a serious offense.
Homosexuality
The norms of medieval Slavic church law regarding homosexuality were rooted in the teachings of the Church Fathers. These, in turn, experienced strong influences from already established interpretations of biblical texts regarding sexual expression, as well as the life and customs of pre-Christian Greece. The attitude of ancient Semitic society towards male homosexuality was reflected in the Law of Moses and in interpretations of the parable of Sodom and Gomorrah. According to the Mosaic Law, homosexuality was considered one of the most serious crimes, punishable by stoning. The apostolic preference for celibacy included the denial of any sexual activity, whether heterosexual or homosexual, but homosexuality was specifically condemned. The philosophy of the Neoplatonists preached the limitation of sensual immersion in sex, especially if it was not associated with procreative goals.
But Hellenistic culture had obvious anti-ascetic tendencies, and male homosexuality was not only tolerated, but also promoted. However, not all types of homosexual contacts were favored. Anal intercourse was considered humiliating, at least for the passive partner, since he placed himself in a subordinate, “female”
"sky" position201. The Athenians of the Golden Age idealized other forms of homosexual relationships that developed between older and younger men belonging to the same social environment. The relationship was supposed to be primarily spiritual and based on mutual respect: the youth revered the social status and merits of his adult lover, while the more mature man admired the physical beauty and potential of the youth. And when such a union reached the stage of physical implementation, lovers used mutual masturbation and engaged in intrafemoral intercourse, refusing anal penetration. Thus, the early Christian milieu distinguished between two forms of male homosexuality: the despised variety that involved anal penetration, and the much more respectable version of homosexuality that involved mutual stimulation with the hands and thighs. Although Christian writers could not condone any form of extramarital sexual expression, they nevertheless accepted one of the prevailing moral principles of the society in which they lived, which asserted that one kind of homosexuality was more disgusting than another.
Thus, Slavic Orthodox church leaders inherited the system of Byzantine church law, which distinguished between homosexual men who engaged in anal intercourse and those who indulged in mutual masturbation, and between active and passive partners. Homosexual intercourse that involved anal penetration (referred to as "fornication" or "sodomy") was considered as serious an offense as heterosexual adultery. According to Saint Basil, for such violations a fifteen-year penance was imposed, as for adultery. Slavic church jurists preferred to apply the shortened periods of penance established by Saint John the Faster, reduced to two to three years of fasting and prayer202. Deviation from this norm in the direction of either greater tolerance or greater severity was rare. Some statutes required the imposition of penances lasting one year, five or even seven years, but all within the limits of penances for heterosexual sins203. Only extremely rarely was a particularly severe penance offered.
mya, and only in texts where softer recommendations were also given204.
When assigning penances for homosexual relations, priests were instructed to determine the age of the offender, the number of times he participated in such intercourse, his marital status, the voluntariness of participation and the role he played in this case205. The usual leniency towards young people under thirty also extended to homosexual relations. One of the statutes recommended a two-year penance for young people and a three-year penance for more mature people206. Byzantine civil law in the Slavic translation and Slavic national laws did not consider boys under twelve years of age responsible for a deliberate offense. According to one of the penitential questionnaires, if a boy under five years of age was sexually abused, then the burden of sin was borne by the one who chose this child to satisfy his own lust; if the boy was more than five years old, but according to the law he was not yet considered an adult, his parents were responsible for what happened, since they did not teach their offspring to avoid sin207. Two or three youthful homosexual experiments were considered a minor violation208. In relation to homosexual relations, as in the case of heterosexual fornication, bachelors seemed to be given greater freedom of action; a married man was supposedly obliged to satisfy his sexual desires with his legal wife, and not turn to another person of any gender209. A young man forced or coerced into playing a passive role in homosexual anal intercourse was considered less culpable than a willing participant. At least one of the authors completely absolved the responsibility of young victims of homosexual violence210.
Some hierarchs perceived the passive role in homosexual relationships as less sinful than the active role. This point of view was the opposite of that prevailing in Ancient Greece: there, a passive participant in anal sex turned into a déclassé, while an active person retained his status. However, from the point of view of Orthodox church leaders, the initiator of sin deserved more serious condemnation than the one who only passively participated in it. In this sense, the worst situation was for homosexual partners to change active and passive roles, so that both parties were equally guilty211. Other Slavic authors disagreed with this, believing
that both active and passive roles are equally deserving of condemnation212.
In accordance with the ancient Greek distinction between anal and interfemoral homosexual intercourse, Slavic clergy usually regarded the latter as just a minor sin. While anal intercourse was considered to be in the same category of serious sins as adultery and bestiality, intercourse between the thighs was equated with masturbation (“malakim” or “handjob”). The usual penance was an eighty-day fast with fifty prostrations per day, that is, only twice as much as for ordinary masturbation. True, from time to time there was a recommendation to impose penance in the form of a two-year ban on communion without any fasting213. If a three-year penance was prescribed, then it became clear that there was an analogy with the norms relating to masturbation, and not with those relating to anal homosexual intercourse214. Slavic clergy considered the use of hands for mutual masturbation more sinful than the use of thighs, “although both are evil and vile”215. Intercourse between the thighs was not perceived as a “complete fall from grace” in the sense in which anal intercourse was considered - those who engaged in this were not prohibited from taking the priestly rank216.
Other types of homosexual activity were even less serious. A lustful kiss from a man to a man entailed a forty-day penance with one hundred prostrations to the ground, that is, little more than for the same kiss with a woman. Trying to attract the attention of a man in order to start a homosexual relationship was treated no more seriously than trying to interest a woman in forbidden sex217.
It was much more serious for a man if he “tried to make himself like a woman” and shaved his beard; for such a violation he could be anathematized. Archpriest Avvakum, the leader of the Old Believers, refused to bless the clean-shaven sons of one of his supporters on the pretext that they must be heretics. Orthodox believers believed that they, like men, were created in the image and likeness of God and therefore should not strive to change their appearance and thereby resemble women218.
Although Slavic Orthodox norms regarding male homosexuality were apparently based on Hellenistic and early Christian ideas, they were irrevocably
The immediate recognition of the Slavic Churches of the Middle Ages indicates that they corresponded to the needs of society and the national perception of the issue. The rejection of homosexuality was not based on the fact that it was supposedly “unnatural” for a man to be sexually attracted to other men, but rather the Slavic clergy felt the importance of preserving prescribed gender roles for men and women. These roles excluded the submission of one man through anal penetration by another man. To condition the "feminization" of any man by putting him in a situation in which he had to fulfill a feminine role was even worse. However, when men engaged in mutual masturbation, neither of them was in the woman's place, so that the maintenance of prescribed gender roles was guaranteed. And therefore, Slavic clergy could afford greater leniency towards this particular type of homosexual activity. In any case, the Slavic hierarchs - and especially the Russians - showed less hostility towards homosexual practice than their Western European counterparts, and at worst perceived it as some kind of equivalent to heterosexual adultery. Neither the Charter of Yaroslav nor the Charter of Stefan Dušan mentioned homosexuality. It is possible that much of the homosexual practice of that time took place in monasteries; and in the monastery rules there were norms regarding homosexuality. However, by the end of the fifteenth century, homosexuality was becoming more visible in secular communities, although it did not yet attract streams of derogatory abuse. Samuel Collins, an Englishman who visited Rus' in the seventeenth century, noted that homosexual activity in Rus' was more open and tolerated than in his homeland. The division of Muscovite society into clearly defined male and female spheres expanded the possibilities of homosexual contacts by limiting heterosexual opportunities.
Lesbian behavior was not considered a serious violation. Sexual intercourse between adult women was usually classified as masturbatory (“malakia”). Penance was recommended in the form of a one-year ban from communion220. This kind of penance, longer than for mutually masturbating men, suggested the perception of this violation as more sinful, although not on the same scale as male homosexual anal intercourse. "Behind-
the law of the people" in Article 59 required the use of corporal punishment for women involved in this form of homosexual relations, when one of the women sits astride the other221. It was considered inappropriate for a woman to take on a male role in a sexual relationship, even in relation to another woman. At the same time, if a woman stepped outside her rightful place among other women, this represented less of a threat to the social order than the usurpation of power in a male community.
In relation to lesbianism, the concern of church leaders also had a different background: there was a connection between female homosexuality and pagan rituals. Women who participated in lesbian intercourse were called “godless women” - this derogatory expression was often used to refer to pagan priestesses. They were also accused of “praying to pitchforks” (female spirits) during homosexual activities222. In female homosexuality there was an allegedly dangerous anti-Christian component, which was obviously not present in mutual male masturbation.
Bishop Niphon ruled that sex between two teenage girls deserved a lighter penance than premarital heterosexual fornication, especially if the hymen remained intact. Lesbian play among unmarried girls in seventeenth-century Rus' was apparently the order of the day. There is a secular tale about Frol Skobeev, who wanted to marry the rich heiress Annushka, despite her father's objections. To achieve his goal, he bribed her nanny and, disguised as a girl, went to Annushka’s friendly party. At Frol’s instigation, the nanny he had bribed suggested a game of “wedding,” where Annushka was chosen to play the role of the “bride,” and the newly disguised Frol was chosen to play the role of the “groom.” As the game progressed, the young people imitated a wedding ceremony and marriage feast, after which the “married couple” was put to bed. Frol took the opportunity to rape Annushka and thereby make her his ally224. The anonymous author of the story did not at all invent the “wedding” game for the sake of developing the plot; the repentant questions asked of young girls testified to her real existence225. These games, practiced quite openly, were treated very tolerantly, and if they were condemned, it was only for show, since in this way reclusive girls prepared for married life without risking harm.
take virginity and become pregnant before marriage. Lesbian relationships between young girls reinforced appropriate behavior patterns.
Bestiality
In the agricultural world of the medieval Slavs, animals represented an opportunity for sexual gratification. Most Slavic church leaders considered bestiality a serious sin. Church norms included descriptions of the sexual use of a range of animals, most often cows, but also pigs, dogs, birds and reptiles. Some statutes addressed the sexual consumption of both male and female animals. Violators could be of any gender, although the rules affecting men were the most numerous. The same penances were imposed on women for such sins as on men228. The usually imposed fifteen-year penance (according to St. Basil) or a two- to three-year fast accompanied by prostrations to the ground (according to John the Faster) indicated that the sin of bestiality was in the same category as adultery or male homosexual anal intercourse. Some penitential statutes drew a line between intercourse with mammals and sexual contact with chickens or other birds. The latter, no doubt, resulted in a lighter penance, because poultry was cheaper and easier to replace than other farm animals229. The harsh condemnation of bestiality by the Council of Ancyra, which established a twenty-year penance for a young man and a fifty-five-year penance for a mature married man, was not reflected in the Slavic norms of church law or in penitential questionnaires230. True, the distinction between young bachelors and more mature married men was fully consistent with the main thrust of the norms of Slavic church law. For a young man, penance could be limited to one single year of fasting231. As with other sexual sins, the frequency of violations was taken into account, and in some Slavic statutes the Old Testament rule was reproduced: whether the offender later ate the meat of the animal he used. In the latter case, clergymen most often recommended longer penances according to the recommendations of St. Basil232. From the point of view
According to the medieval Slavs, sexual contact with animals was no more destructive to society than other unauthorized sexual alternatives, and they did not deserve more severe punishments. Indeed, a number of Russian clergy considered bestiality as something much less serious than many other sexual sins, and reduced the penance to only forty days. Yaroslav's charter provided for a fine of twelve hryvnia, which equated bestiality with incest with a sister-in-law or with extra-church divorce233.
NOTES
194 Missal and Breviary ser. XTV c. // BAN. D. 48. Title page; Sinai 17 (17). L. 171.
195 Diamonds. T. 3. P. 145 (3 days), 148 (3 years), 276 (3 years); Vat.-Boron. 15
(4 years). L. 478; BNB 251 (200). L. 127 (2 weeks); SANI 124 (29). L. 95 (1 year); Decani 69. L. 108 (12 weeks).
196 On the development of definitions of sodomy and “unnatural” sex in the Western tradition, see: Goodich. V. IX. R. 29 - 34; Bullough V. L. The Sin against Nature and Homosexuality // Bullough, Brundage, eds. P. 55 - 71; Brundage. Law, Sex, and Christian Society. P. 212 - 214. In the Roman Catholic Church of the West, the hierarchy of sins of a sexual nature differs significantly from that accepted among the Orthodox Slavs in the East. Tentler (Tentler. pp. 141 - 142) lists in ascending order the sexual sins taken from the manuals for confessors of the period before the Reformation: (1) unchaste kissing, (2) unchaste touching, (3) fornication, (4) promiscuity (which was equivalent to the seduction of a virgin), (5) simple adultery (that is, one partner is married, one is free), (6) double adultery (both partners are married), (7) voluntary sacrilege (that is, one of the partners is bound by a religious Vow), (8) rape or abduction of a virgin, (9) rape or abduction of another's wife, (10) rape or abduction of a mona-yavni, (11) incest, (12) masturbation, (13) inappropriate position during intercourse (even between spouses), (14) penetration into an inappropriate orifice (especially unacceptable between spouses), (15) sodomy (which was equivalent to homosexuality), (16) bestiality. See also: Bullough. Sexual Variation in Society and History. P. 380 - 382.
197 Smirnov. Materials. P. 64 (“The rule is even a bigamist”); confirmed in: Almazov. T. 3. P. 18.
198 Stoglav. P. 109 (ch. 33).
199 See excerpt from the Russian Izmaragd manuscript in: Monuments of Old Russian Church Teaching Literature. Vol. 3. St. Petersburg, 1897. pp. 38-39.
200 Severe bans on sodomy in Venice during the Renaissance were also based on concerns about the threat to established relationships in society, see: Ruggiero. P. 109.
201 Buffer. Eros adolescent P. 19 - 22, 195 - 198. Exactly the same point of view was held in Ancient Rome, see: Veyne. Homosexuality in Ancient Rome. P. 30-31.
202 Eg: SANI 123 (28). L. 25 (15 years or three-year fasting with 200 prostrations); RGIM Sin. 227. L. 195; Vat.-Boron. 15. L. 476 (15 years or 2 years and 200 prostrations); Hill. 378. L. 167 (3 years, 500 bows); Trinity. pp. 69 - 70.
203 Eg.: Smirnov. Materials. P. 134 (1 year), 143 (5 years); Almazov. T. 3. P. 286 (7 years, 100 prostrations); Hill. 301. L. 126 (5 years, 300 prostrations).
204 NBS 688, l. 25, 93,110 gives a wide range of penances for homosexual anal intercourse: 2 years with 200 prostrations, 15 years, 18 years (attributed to Gregory of Nyssa) and a phenomenal period of 80 years. R*la 1/20 (48), l. 94, 102, 185 - 186, 188 gives a list of penances of 2 years, 3 years, 5 years, 15 years and 30 years; see also: RGIM Syn. 227. L. 181 - 182.
206 Rila 1/20 (48). L. 186.
207 NBS 688. L. 25; Almazov. T. 3. P. 149.
208 Print. 77. L. 23 - 24.
209 Kyiv 191. L. 154.
210 Rila 1/20 (48). L. 21; Hill. 301. L. 126.
212 Diamonds. T. 3. P. 149. In Venice, an active homosexual partner was considered more guilty and abnormal than a passive partner, see: Ruggiero. P. 121.
213 Eg: Decani 70. L. 227; Hill. 627. L. 15; Kyiv 191. L. 686; Trinity. P. 67. In two manuscripts, in one place there is a twelve-year penance, but in another - the usual eighty-day one: Pech. 77 L. 236, 261; SANI 124 (29). L. 54.
214 For example: Almazov. T. 3. P. 276; SANI 124 (29). L. 72, 77; NBS 1-14. L. 259, 264. In Venice during the Renaissance, interthigh homosexual intercourse was considered as disgusting as anal sex between men, and the initiator was sentenced to death, see: Ruggiero. R. 110 - 111, 115 - 116.
215 Rila 1/20 (48). L. 127. Oral sex among homosexuals was almost unknown among medieval Slavs; and only one questionnaire out of the nine studied included a question on this topic, see: Almazov. T. 3. P. 152.
217 Diamonds. T. 3. P. 275, 280.
218 Message from the Rostov Archbishop // RIB. T. 6. P. 880; Gujii. P. 493. From the court case of 1687 it is clear how the rules prohibiting shaving were enforced by force, although there is no indication of the accused’s homosexual tendencies. He made the excuse of ignorance and threw himself at the mercy of the court, see: RIB. T. 12. No. 182. P. 864 - 866.
219 For the critical modern reader, Collins' remarks)