How serfdom appeared in Russia. In what year was serfdom abolished? How did serfdom arise?
The legally formalized status of dependence of peasants is called serfdom. This phenomenon characterizes the development of society in the countries of Eastern and Western Europe. The formation of serfdom is associated with the evolution of feudal relations.
The origins of serfdom in Europe
The essence of the feudal dependence of peasants on the landowner was control over the personality of the serf. He could be bought, sold, prohibited from moving around the country or city, even issues of his personal life could be controlled.
Since feudal relations developed depending on the characteristics of the region, serfdom also took shape in different states at different times. In Western European countries it took hold in the Middle Ages. In England, France, and Germany, serfdom was abolished by the 17th century. The times of Enlightenment are rich in reforms concerning the liberation of peasants. Eastern and Central Europe are regions where feudal dependence lasted longer. In Poland, the Czech Republic, and Hungary, serfdom began to take shape in the 15th-16th centuries. It is interesting that the norms of feudal dependence of peasants on feudal lords did not develop.
Characteristic features and conditions for the formation of feudal dependence
The history of serfdom allows us to trace the characteristic features of the state and social system, in which relations of dependence of peasants on rich landowners are formed:
- The presence of a strong centralized government.
- Social differentiation based on property.
- Low level of education.
At the early stage of the development of feudal relations, the goals of enslavement were to attach the peasant to the landowner's land plot and prevent the escape of workers. Legal norms regulated the process of paying taxes - the absence of population movements made it easier to collect tribute. During the period of developed feudalism, prohibitions became more diverse. Now the peasant not only could not independently move from place to place, but also did not have the right and opportunity to purchase real estate, land, and was obliged to pay a certain amount to the landowner for the right to work on his plots. Restrictions for the lower strata of the population varied regionally and depended on the characteristics of the development of society.
The origins of serfdom in Rus'
The process of enslavement in Russia - at the level of legal norms - began in the 15th century. The abolition of personal dependence was carried out much later than in other European countries. According to censuses, the number of serfs in different areas of the country varied. Already at the beginning of the 19th century, dependent peasants began to gradually move to other classes.
Researchers are looking for the origins and causes of serfdom in Russia in the events of the period of the Old Russian state. The formation of social relations took place in the presence of strong centralized power - at least for 100-200 years, during the reign of Vladimir the Great and Yaroslav the Wise. The main set of laws of that time was “Russian Truth”. It contained norms that regulated the relations between free and unfree peasants and landowners. The dependents were slaves, servants, purchasers, and rank and file - they fell into bondage under various circumstances. Smerds were relatively free - they paid tribute and had the right to land.
The Tatar-Mongol invasion and feudal fragmentation became the reasons for the collapse of Rus'. The lands of the once united state became part of Poland, Lithuania, and Muscovy. New attempts at enslavement were made in the 15th century.
The beginning of the formation of feudal dependence
In the XV-XVI centuries, a local system was formed on the territory of former Rus'. The peasant used the landowner's allotments according to the terms of the agreement. Legally he was a free man. The peasant could leave the landowner for another place, but the latter could not drive him away. The only restriction was that you could not leave the site until you paid its owner.
The first attempt to limit the rights of peasants was made by Ivan III. The author of the Code of Law approved the transition to other lands during the week before and after St. George’s Day. In 1581, a decree was issued banning peasants from going out in certain years. But this did not attach them to a specific area. A decree of November 1597 approved the need to return fugitive workers to the landowner. In 1613, the Romanov dynasty came to power in the Moscow kingdom - they increased the time frame for searching and returning fugitives.
About the Council Code
In what year did serfdom become a legal norm? The officially dependent status of the peasantry was approved by the Council Code of 1649. The document differed significantly from previous acts. The main idea of the Code in the field of regulating relations between the landowner and the peasant was the ban on the latter moving to other cities and villages. The place of residence was determined by the territory in which a person lived according to the results of the census of the 1620s. Another fundamental difference between the norms of the Code is the statement that the search for fugitives becomes unlimited. The rights of peasants were limited - the document practically equated them with serfs. The worker's farm belonged to the master.
The beginning of serfdom meant a number of restrictions on movement. But there were also norms that protected the landowner from the willfulness. A peasant could complain or sue, and could not be deprived of land simply by decision of the masters.
In general, such norms consolidated serfdom. It took years to complete the process of formalizing complete feudal dependence.
History of serfdom in Russia
After the Council Code, several more documents appeared that consolidated the dependent status of peasants. The tax reform of 1718-1724 finally attached it to a specific place of residence. Gradually, restrictions led to the formalization of the slave status of the peasants. In 1747, landowners received the right to sell their workers as recruits, and after another 13 years - to send them into exile in Siberia.
At first, the peasant had the opportunity to complain against the landowner, but since 1767 this was abolished. In 1783, serfdom extended to the territory. All laws confirming feudal dependence protected only the rights of landowners.
Any documents aimed at improving the situation of the peasants were virtually ignored. Paul I issued a decree about but in fact the work lasted 5-6 days. Since 1833, landowners received a legally enforceable right to manage the personal life of a serf.
The stages of serfdom make it possible to analyze all the milestones in the consolidation of peasant dependence.
On the eve of the reform
The crisis of the serf system began to make itself felt from the end of the 18th century. This state of society hampered the progress and development of capitalist relations. Serfdom became a wall that separated Russia from the civilized countries of Europe.
It is interesting that feudal dependence did not exist throughout the country. There was no serfdom in the Caucasus, the Far East, or Asian provinces. At the beginning of the 19th century it was abolished in Courland and Livonia. Alexander I issued a law on the purpose of which was to ease the pressure on the peasants.
Nicholas I made an attempt to create a commission that would develop a document abolishing serfdom. Landowners prevented the elimination of this kind of dependence. The emperor obliged the landowners, when releasing a peasant, to give him land that he could cultivate. The consequences of this law are known - landowners stopped freeing serfs.
The complete abolition of serfdom in Rus' will be carried out by the son of Nicholas I - Alexander II.
Reasons for agrarian reform
Serfdom hampered the development of the state. The abolition of serfdom in Rus' became a historical necessity. Unlike many European countries, industry and trade developed less well in Russia. The reason for this was the lack of motivation and interest of workers in the results of their work. Serfdom became a brake on the development of market relations and the completion of the industrial revolution. In many European countries it successfully ended at the beginning of the 19th century.
Landowner farming and feudal relations have ceased to be effective - they have outlived their usefulness and do not correspond to historical realities. The labor of serfs did not justify itself. The dependent position of the peasants completely deprived them of their rights and gradually became a catalyst for rebellion. Social discontent was growing. A reform of serfdom was needed. Resolving the issue required a professional approach.
An important event, the consequence of which was the reform of 1861, is the Crimean War, in which Russia was defeated. Social problems and foreign policy failures pointed to the unproductiveness of the state's domestic and foreign policies.
Opinions on serfdom
Many writers, politicians, travelers, and thinkers expressed their views on serfdom. Plausible descriptions of peasant life were censored. Since the beginning of serfdom, there have been several opinions about it. Let us highlight two main, opposite ones. Some considered such relations to be natural for a monarchical state system. Serfdom was called a historically determined consequence of patriarchal relations, useful for educating the population and an urgent need for full and effective economic development. The second, opposite to the first, position speaks of feudal dependence as an immoral phenomenon. Serfdom, according to fans of this concept, destroys the country's social and economic system. Supporters of the second position include A. Herzen and K. Aksakov. A. Savelyev’s publication refutes any negative aspects of serfdom. The author writes that statements about the misfortunes of peasants are far from the truth. The 1861 reform also received mixed reviews.
Development of a reform project
For the first time, Emperor Alexander II spoke about the possibility of abolishing serfdom in 1856. A year later, a committee was convened that was supposed to develop a reform project. It consisted of 11 people. The commission came to the conclusion that it was necessary to create special committees in each province. They must study the situation on the ground and make their amendments and recommendations. In 1857 this project was legalized. The main idea of the original plan for the abolition of serfdom was the elimination of personal dependence while maintaining the rights of landowners to land. A transition period was envisaged for society to adapt to the reform. The possible abolition of serfdom in Rus' caused misunderstanding among landowners. In the newly formed committees there was also a struggle over the conditions for carrying out the reform. In 1858, the decision was made to ease the pressure on the peasants, rather than abolish the dependence. The most successful project was developed by Y. Rostovtsev. The program provided for the abolition of personal dependence, consolidation of the transition period, and the provision of land to peasants. Conservative-minded politicians did not like the project - they sought to limit the rights and size of peasants' plots. In 1860, after the death of Ya. Rostovtsev, V. Panin began developing the program.
The results of several years of committee work served as the basis for the abolition of serfdom. The year 1861 became a landmark year in Russian history in all respects.
Proclamation of the "Manifesto"
The agrarian reform project formed the basis of the “Manifesto on the Abolition of Serfdom.” The text of this document was supplemented by the “Regulations on Peasants” - they described in more detail all the subtleties of social and economic changes. The abolition of serfdom in Rus' took place this year. On this day, the emperor signed the Manifesto and made it public.
The program of the document abolished serfdom. The years of unprogressive feudal relations are a thing of the past. At least that's what many thought.
Main provisions of the document:
- The peasants received personal freedom and were considered “temporarily obligated.”
- Former serfs could have property and the right to self-government.
- Peasants were given land, but they had to work it and pay for it. Obviously, the former serfs did not have money for ransom, so this clause formally renamed personal dependence.
- The size of land plots was determined by landowners.
- Landowners received a guarantee from the state for the right to buy out transactions. Thus, financial obligations fell on the peasants.
Below is the table “Serfdom: abolition of personal dependence”. Let's analyze the positive and negative results of the reform.
Positive | Negative |
Obtaining personal civil liberties | Restrictions on movement remain |
The right to freely marry, trade, file complaints in court, own property | The inability to buy land actually returned the peasant to the position of a serf. |
The emergence of the foundations for the development of market relations | The rights of landowners were placed above the rights of commoners |
The peasants were not ready to work and did not know how to enter into market relations. Just like the landowners did not know how to live without serfs | |
Exorbitantly large amount of land purchase | |
Formation of a rural community. She was not a progressive factor in the development of society |
The year 1861 in the history of Russia became the year of a turning point in social foundations. The feudal relations that had become entrenched in society could no longer be useful. But the reform itself was not well thought out, and therefore had many negative consequences.
Russia after the reform
The consequences of serfdom, such as unpreparedness for capitalist relations and a crisis for all classes, indicate that the proposed changes were untimely and ill-considered. The peasants responded to the reform with large-scale protests. Uprisings swept many provinces. During 1861, more than 1,000 riots were recorded.
The negative consequences of the abolition of serfdom, which equally affected both landowners and peasants, affected the economic condition of Russia, which was not ready for change. The reform eliminated the existing long-standing system of social and economic relations, but did not create a basis and did not suggest ways for the further development of the country in new conditions. The impoverished peasantry was now completely destroyed both by the oppression of the landowners and the needs of the growing bourgeois class. The result was a slowdown in the capitalist development of the country.
The reform did not free the peasants from serfdom, but only took away from them their last opportunity to feed their families at the expense of the landowners, who were obliged by law to support their serfs. Their plots have decreased compared to pre-reform ones. Instead of the quitrent they earned from the landowner, huge payments of various types appeared. The rights to use forests, meadows and reservoirs were actually completely taken away from the rural community. The peasants were still a separate class with no rights. And still they were considered as existing in a special legal regime.
The landowners suffered many losses because the reform limited their economic interests. The monopoly on peasants eliminated the possibility of free use of the latter for the development of agriculture. In fact, the landowners were forced to give the peasants the allotment land as their own. The reform was characterized by contradictions and inconsistency, the absence of a solution to the further development of society and the relationship between former slaves and landowners. But, ultimately, a new historical period was opened, which had progressive significance.
The peasant reform was of great importance for the further formation and development of capitalist relations in Russia. Among the positive results are the following:
After the liberation of the peasants, an intensive trend appeared in the growth of the non-professional labor market.
The rapid development of industry and agricultural entrepreneurship was due to the provision of civil and property rights to former serfs. The class rights of the nobility to land were eliminated, and the opportunity arose to trade land plots.
The reform of 1861 became a salvation from the financial collapse of the landowners, as the state took on huge debts from the peasants.
The abolition of serfdom served as a prerequisite for the creation of a constitution designed to provide people with their freedoms, rights and responsibilities. This became the main goal on the path to the transition from an absolute monarchy to a constitutional one, that is, to a rule of law state in which citizens live according to existing laws, and everyone is given the right to reliable personal protection.
The active construction of new factories and factories led to the development of belated technical progress.
The post-reform period was distinguished by the strengthening of the positions of the bourgeoisie and the economic collapse of the weakening of the noble class, which still ruled the state and firmly held power, which contributed to the slow transition to the capitalist form of economic management.
At the same time, the emergence of the proletariat as a separate class is noted. The abolition of serfdom in Russia was followed by zemstvo (1864), city (1870), and judicial (1864), which were beneficial to the bourgeoisie. The purpose of these legislative changes was to bring the system and administration in Russia into legal compliance with the new developing social structures, where millions of liberated peasants wanted to gain the right to be called people.
In Russian history, one of the saddest pages is the section on “serfdom,” which equated most of the empire’s population to a lower class. The peasant reform of 1861 freed dependent people from bondage, which became the impetus for the reconstruction of the entire state into a democratic free power.
In contact with
Basic Concepts
Before talking about the process of abolition, we should briefly understand the definition of this term and understand what role it played in the history of the Russian state. In this article you will get answers to the questions: who abolished serfdom and when was serfdom abolished.
Serfdom is a legal norm that prohibits the dependent population, that is, peasants, from leaving certain plots of land to which they were assigned.
It will not be possible to talk about this topic briefly, because many historians equate this form of dependence with slavery, although there are many differences between them.
Not a single peasant and his family could leave a certain plot of land without the permission of the aristocrat who owned the land. If a slave was attached directly to his owner, then a serf was attached to the land, and since the owner had the right to manage the allotment, then so did the peasants.
People who fled were put on the wanted list, and the relevant authorities had to bring them back. In most cases, some of the fugitives were demonstratively killed as an example for others.
Important! Similar forms of dependence were also common during the New Age in England, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, Spain, Hungary and other countries.
Reasons for the abolition of serfdom
The majority of the male and able-bodied population concentrated in villages, where they worked for landowners. The entire harvest collected by the serfs was sold abroad and brought huge profits to the landowners. The economy in the country did not develop, which is why the Russian Empire was at a much lagging stage of development than the countries of Western Europe.
Historians agree that the following reasons and prerequisites were dominant, since they most acutely demonstrated the problems of the Russian Empire:
- This form of dependence hampered the development of the capitalist system - because of this, the level of the economy in the empire was at a very low level.
- The industry was not going through its best times - due to the lack of workers in the cities, the full functioning of factories, mines and factories was impossible.
- When agriculture in Western European countries developed on the principle of introducing new types of equipment, fertilizers, and methods of cultivating land, in the Russian Empire it developed on an extensive principle - due to an increase in the area of crops.
- Peasants did not participate in the economic and political life of the empire, but they made up the majority of the country's entire population.
- Since in Western Europe this type of dependence was considered a kind of slavery, the authority of the empire suffered greatly among the monarchs of the Western world.
- The peasantry was dissatisfied with this state of affairs, and therefore uprisings and riots constantly occurred in the country. Dependence on the landowner also encouraged people to become Cossacks.
- The progressive layer of the intelligentsia constantly put pressure on the tsar and insisted on profound changes in the country.
Preparations for the abolition of serfdom
The so-called peasant reform was prepared long before its implementation. At the beginning of the 19th century, the first prerequisites for the abolition of serfdom were laid.
Preparations for the abolition of serfdom began during the reign, but it did not go further than projects. Under Emperor Alexander II in 1857, Editorial Commissions were created, which developed a project for liberation from dependence.
The body was faced with a difficult task: peasant reform must be carried out according to such a principle that the changes would not cause a wave of discontent among the landowners.
The commission created several reform projects, reviewing various options. Numerous peasant revolts pushed its members towards more radical changes.
Reform of 1861 and its content
The manifesto on the abolition of serfdom was signed by Tsar Alexander II on March 3, 1861. This document contained 17 points that examined the main points of the transition of peasants from a dependent to a relatively free class of society.
It is important to highlight the main provisions of the manifesto on the liberation of people from serfdom:
- peasants were no longer a dependent class of society;
- people could now own real estate and other types of property;
- in order to become free, the peasants had to initially buy the land from the landowners, taking out a large loan;
- quitrents also had to be paid for the use of land;
- the creation of rural communities with an elected head was allowed;
- The size of plots that can be redeemed was clearly regulated by the state.
The 1861 reform to abolish serfdom followed the abolition of serfdom in lands subject to the Austrian Empire. The territory of Western Ukraine was in the possession of the Austrian monarch. The elimination of serfdom in the west occurred in 1849. This process only accelerated this process in the East. They had almost the same reasons for the abolition of serfdom as in the Russian Empire.
Abolition of serfdom in Russia in 1861 (briefly)
The manifesto was published throughout the country from March 7 to mid-April of the same year. Due to the fact that the peasants were not just freed, but forced to buy their freedom, they protested.
The government, in turn, took all security measures, redeploying troops to the hottest spots.
Information about such a path of liberation only angered the peasantry. The abolition of serfdom in Russia in 1861 led to an increase in the number of uprisings compared to the previous year.
Protests and riots almost tripled in scope and number. The government was forced to subdue them by force, causing thousands to die.
Within two years from the moment the manifesto was published, 6/10 of all peasants in the country signed the advisory letters “on liberation”. The purchase of land for most people lasted more than a decade. About a third of them still had not paid off their debts at the end of the 1880s.
The abolition of serfdom in Russia in 1861 was considered by many representatives of the landowner class to be the end of Russian statehood. They assumed that the peasants would now rule the country and said that it was necessary to choose a new king among the mob, thereby criticizing the actions of Alexander II.
Results of the reform
The peasant reform of 1861 led to the following transformations in the Russian Empire:
- the peasants now became a free unit of society, but had to buy back the plot for a very large sum;
- the landowners had to be guaranteed to give the peasant a small allotment, or sell the land, at the same time they were deprived of labor and income;
- “rural communities” were created, which further controlled the life of the peasant; all questions about obtaining a passport or moving to another place were again decided on the community council;
- the conditions for obtaining freedom caused discontent, which led to an increase in the number and scope of uprisings.
And although the liberation of peasants from serfdom was more beneficial to the landowners than to the dependent class, it was a progressive step in the development of the Russian Empire. It was from the moment when serfdom was abolished that the transition from an agrarian to an industrial society began.
Attention! The transition to freedom in Russia was quite peaceful, while due to the abolition of slavery in the country, the Civil War began, which became the bloodiest conflict in the history of the country.
The reform of 1861 did not completely solve the pressing problems of society. The poor remained far from governing the state and were only an instrument of tsarism.
It was the unresolved problems of peasant reform that rapidly emerged at the beginning of the next century.
In 1905, another revolution began in the country, which was brutally suppressed. Twelve years later, it exploded with renewed vigor, which led to dramatic changes in society.
Serfdom for many years kept the Russian Empire at the agrarian level of social development, while in the West it had long since become industrial. Economic backwardness and peasant unrest led to the abolition of serfdom and the emancipation of the dependent layer of the population. These were the reasons for the abolition of serfdom.
The year 1861 became a turning point in the development of the Russian Empire, since it was then that a huge step was taken, which later allowed the country to get rid of the remnants that hampered its development.
Prerequisites for the peasant reform of 1861
Abolition of serfdom, historical overview
Conclusion
In the spring of 1861, the great Almighty Alexander II signed a manifesto on the liberation of the peasants. The conditions for obtaining freedom were accepted very negatively by the lower class. And yet, twenty years later, most of the once dependent population became free and had their own land plot, house and other property.
Short story
In ancient Russia, most of the land was taken over by princes, boyars and monasteries. With the strengthening of the grand ducal power, service people were rewarded with extensive estates. The peasants who lived on these lands were personally free people and entered into lease agreements (“decent”) with the landowner. At certain times (for example, around St. George’s Day), peasants could freely leave their plot and move to another, fulfilling their obligations towards the landowner.
Gradually, the extent of peasants’ dependence on landowners expanded, and by the end of the 16th century. the free departure of peasants was prohibited; they were attached to their place of residence and landowners (decrees 1592 and 1597). From then on, the situation of the serfs began to rapidly deteriorate; landowners began to sell and buy serfs, marry and give in marriage at will, and received the right to trial and punish serfs (before exile to Siberia).
The difficult situation of the serfs, who sought to escape from the yoke of the landowners, prompted the serfs to resort to murder and arson of the landowners, to riots and uprisings (Pugachevism, and the incessant unrest of peasants in different provinces throughout the first half of the 19th century). Under Alexander I, the idea of the need to soften serfdom was expressed in the 1803 law on free cultivators. By voluntary agreement between landowners and peasants, about 47 thousand serfs were freed. The rest of the landowner peasants are approx. 10.5 million souls - liberated on February 19, 1861.
Chronology of peasant enslavement in Russia
Briefly, the chronology of the enslavement of peasants in Russia can be presented as follows:
- 1497 - introduction of restrictions on the right to transfer from one landowner to another - St. George's Day.
- 1581 - abolition of St. George's Day - “reserved summers”.
- 1597 - the landowner’s right to search for a runaway peasant within 5 years and to return him to the owner - “prescribed summers”.
- 1607 - cathedral code of 1607: the period for searching for fugitive peasants was increased to 15 years.
- 1649 - the cathedral code of 1649 abolished fixed-term summers, thus securing an indefinite search for fugitive peasants.
- - Messrs. - tax reform, which finally attached the peasants to the land.
- 1747 - the landowner was given the right to sell his serfs as recruits to any person.
- 1760 - the landowner received the right to exile peasants to Siberia.
- 1765 - the landowner received the right to exile peasants not only to Siberia, but also to hard labor.
- 1767 - peasants were strictly forbidden to submit petitions (complaints) against their landowners personally to the empress or emperor.
- 1783 - extension of serfdom to Left Bank Ukraine.
see also
Notes
Links
- // Small Encyclopedic Dictionary of Brockhaus and Efron: In 4 volumes - St. Petersburg. , 1907-1909.
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See what “Serfdom in Russia” is in other dictionaries:
Serfdom is a form of dependence of peasants: their attachment to the land and subordination to the administrative and judicial power of the feudal lord. In Western Europe, where in the Middle Ages the English villans, Catalan remens,... ... Political science. Dictionary.
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- (serfdom), a form of peasant dependence: their attachment to the land and subordination to the administrative and judicial power of the feudal lord. In Western Europe (where in the Middle Ages the English villans, Catalan remens,... ... encyclopedic Dictionary
A set of legal norms of the feudal state that consolidated the most complete and severe form of peasant dependence under feudalism. K. p. included a prohibition on peasants leaving their land plots (the so-called attachment ... ... Great Soviet Encyclopedia
Serfdom- a state in which peasants are completely economically and personally dependent on their owners. In some countries of Western Europe (Sweden, Norway) serfdom did not exist, in others it arose in the era of feudalism.... ... Popular Political Dictionary
- (serfdom) a form of dependence of peasants: their attachment to the land and subordination to the administrative and judicial power of the feudal lord. In the West Europe (where in the Middle Ages the English villans, Catalan remens,... ... Big Encyclopedic Dictionary
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Serfdom- (serfdom), a form of peasant dependence: their attachment to the land and subordination to the administrative and judicial power of the feudal lord. In Russia it is enshrined in Code 1497; decree on reserved years (late 16th century), which prohibited the transition of peasants from ... Illustrated Encyclopedic Dictionary
The form of dependence of the peasants: their attachment to the land and subordination to the administrative and judicial power of the feudal lord. In Western Europe (where in the Middle Ages English villans, French and Italian serfs were in the position of serfs), elements of K... Legal dictionary
Serfdom, serfdom, a form of dependence of peasants: their attachment to the land and subordination to the judicial power of the landowner. In Russia, it was formalized on a national scale by Code of Law 1497, decrees of the late 16th and early 17th centuries. about protected areas... ...Russian history
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On this day in 1861, Alexander II abolished serfdom in Russia by issuing the Manifesto for the Emancipation of the Peasants, recalls RIA Novosti.
Even during the reign of Nicholas I, a large amount of preparatory material was collected for carrying out the peasant reform. Serfdom during the reign of Nicholas I remained unshakable, but significant experience was accumulated in solving the peasant question, which his son Alexander II, who ascended the throne on March 4, 1855, could later rely on. Alexander Nikolaevich was inspired by the most sincere intention to do everything to eliminate the shortcomings of Russian life. He considered serfdom to be the main disadvantage. By this time, the idea of abolishing serfdom had become widespread among the “top”: the government, among the bureaucrats, the nobility, and the intelligentsia. Meanwhile, this was one of the most difficult problems.
Serfdom developed in Rus' over centuries and was closely connected with various aspects of the life of the Russian peasant. The peasant depended on the feudal lord in personal, land, property, and legal relations. Now the peasant had to be freed from the tutelage of the landowner and given personal freedom. At the beginning of 1857, a Secret Committee was established to prepare peasant reform. The government then decided to make its intentions known to the public, and the Secret Committee was renamed the Main Committee. The nobility of all regions had to create provincial committees to develop peasant reform. At the beginning of 1859, Editorial Commissions were created to process draft reforms of the noble committees. In September 1860, the draft reform developed was discussed by deputies sent by noble committees, and then transferred to the highest government bodies.
In mid-February 1861, the Regulations on the Liberation of Peasants were considered and approved by the State Council. On March 3, 1861, Alexander II signed the manifesto “On the most merciful granting to serfs of the rights of free rural inhabitants.” The final words of the historical Manifesto were: “Sign yourself with the sign of the cross, Orthodox people, and call upon us God’s blessing on your free labor, the guarantee of your home well-being and public good.” The manifesto was announced in both capitals on a major religious holiday - Forgiveness Sunday - March 5, 1861, in other cities - in the coming week.
The manifesto provided peasants with personal freedom and general civil rights. From now on, the peasant could own movable and immovable property, enter into transactions, and act as a legal entity. He was freed from the guardianship of the landowner, could marry without permission, enter the service and educational institutions, change his place of residence, and join the class of burghers and merchants. For this reform, Alexander II began to be called Tsar the Liberator. The peasant reform of Alexander II was of great historical significance. It brought freedom to 25 million peasants and opened the way for the development of bourgeois relations. The abolition of serfdom marked the beginning of other important transformations. The moral significance of the reform was that it ended serfdom.
The era of Alexander II's reign is called the era of Great Reforms or the era of Liberation. The abolition of serfdom in Russia is closely associated with the name of Alexander.
Society before the reform of 1861
The defeat in the Crimean War showed the backwardness of the Russian Empire from Western countries in almost all aspects of the economy and socio-political structure of the state. Progressive people of that time could not help but notice the shortcomings in the thoroughly rotten system of autocratic rule. Russian society by the middle of the 19th century was heterogeneous.
- The nobility was divided into rich, middle and poor. Their attitude towards the reform could not be unambiguous. About 93% of nobles did not have serfs. As a rule, these nobles held government positions and were dependent on the state. The nobles who had large plots of land and many serfs were opposed to the Peasant Reform of 1861.
- The life of serfs was the life of slaves, because this social class did not have civil rights. Serfs were also not a homogeneous mass. In central Russia there were mainly quitrent peasants. They did not lose touch with the rural community and continued to pay taxes to the landowner, hiring in factories in the city. The second group of peasants was corvée and was in the southern part of the Russian Empire. They worked on the landowner's land and paid corvee.
The peasants continued to believe in the “good father of the king,” who wants to free them from the yoke of slavery and allocate a plot of land. After the reform of 1861, this belief only intensified. Despite the deception of the landowners during the reform of 1861, the peasants sincerely believed that the tsar did not know about their troubles. The influence of the Narodnaya Volya on the consciousness of the peasants was minimal.
Rice. 1. Alexander II speaks before the Assembly of Nobility.
Prerequisites for the abolition of serfdom
By the middle of the 19th century, two processes were taking place in the Russian Empire: the prosperity of serfdom and the emergence of a capitalist system. There was constant conflict between these incompatible processes.
All the prerequisites for the abolition of serfdom arose:
- As industry grew, production became more complex. The use of serf labor in this case became completely impossible, since the serfs deliberately broke the machines.
- The factories needed permanent, highly qualified workers. Under the serf system this was impossible.
- The Crimean War revealed acute contradictions in the Russian autocracy. It showed the medieval backwardness of the state from the countries of Western Europe.
Under these circumstances, Alexander II did not want to take the decision on carrying out the Peasant Reform only on himself, because in the largest Western states reforms were always developed in committees specially created by parliament. The Russian emperor decided to follow the same path.
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Preparation and beginning of the reform of 1861
At first, preparations for the peasant reform were carried out secretly from the Russian population. All leadership for designing the reform was concentrated in the Secret or Secret Committee, formed in 1857. However, things in this organization did not go beyond the discussion of the reform program, and the summoned nobles ignored the tsar’s call.
- On November 20, 1857, a republic was drawn up and approved by the tsar. In it, elected committees of nobles were elected from each province, who were obliged to appear at the court for meetings and agreement on the reform project. The reform project began to be prepared openly, and the Secret Committee became the Main Committee.
- The main issue of the Peasant Reform was the discussion of how to free the peasant from serfdom - with land or not. The liberals, who consisted of industrialists and landless nobles, wanted to free the peasants and allocate them plots of land. A group of serf owners, consisting of wealthy landowners, was against the allocation of land plots to the peasants. In the end, a compromise was found. Liberals and serf owners found a compromise between themselves and decided to free the peasants with minimal plots of land for a large ransom. This “liberation” suited the industrialists, since it provided them with permanent labor. The Peasant Reform supplied the serf owners with both capital and labor.
Speaking briefly about the abolition of serfdom in Russia in 1861, it should be noted three basic conditions which Alexander II planned to carry out:
- the complete abolition of serfdom and the liberation of the peasants;
- each peasant was allocated a plot of land, and the amount of the ransom was determined for him;
- the peasant could leave his place of residence only with the permission of the newly formed rural society instead of the rural community;
To resolve pressing issues and fulfill obligations to fulfill duties and pay ransom, peasants on landowners' estates united into rural societies. To control the relationship between the landowner and rural communities, the Senate appointed peace mediators. The nuance was that peace mediators were appointed from local nobles, who naturally sided with the landowner when resolving controversial issues.
The result of the reform of 1861
The reform of 1861 revealed a whole a number of disadvantages :
- the landowner could move the site of his estate wherever he pleased;
- the landowner could exchange the peasants' plots for his own lands until they were fully redeemed;
- Before the redemption of his allotment, the peasant was not its sovereign owner;
The emergence of rural societies in the year of the abolition of serfdom gave rise to mutual responsibility. Rural communities held meetings or gatherings, at which all peasants were assigned duties to the landowner equally, each peasant being responsible for the other. At rural gatherings, issues about the misdeeds of peasants, problems of paying ransom, etc. were also resolved. The decisions of the meeting were valid if they were adopted by a majority of votes.
- The main part of the ransom was borne by the state. In 1861, the Main Redemption Institution was created.
The main part of the ransom was borne by the state. For the ransom of each peasant, 80% of the total amount was paid, the remaining 20% was paid by the peasant. This amount could be paid in a lump sum or in installments, but most often the peasant worked it off through labor service. On average, a peasant paid the state for about 50 years, paying 6% per annum. At the same time, the peasant paid a ransom for the land, the remaining 20%. On average, a peasant paid off the landowner within 20 years.
The main provisions of the reform of 1861 were not implemented immediately. This process lasted almost three decades.
Liberal reforms of the 60-70s of the 19th century.
The Russian Empire approached liberal reforms with an unusually neglected local economy: roads between villages were washed away in spring and autumn, there was no basic hygiene in the villages, not to mention medical care, epidemics mowed down the peasants. Education was in its infancy. The government did not have money to revive villages, so a decision was made to reform local governments.
Rice. 2. First pancake. V. Pchelin.
- On January 1, 1864, the zemstvo reform was carried out. The zemstvo was a local government body that took charge of the construction of roads, the organization of schools, the construction of hospitals, churches, etc. An important point was the organization of assistance to the population that suffered from crop failure. To solve particularly important problems, the zemstvo could impose a special tax on the population. The administrative bodies of the zemstvos were provincial and district assemblies, and the executive bodies were provincial and district councils. Elections to the zemstvos were held once every three years. Three congresses met for elections. The first congress consisted of landowners, the second congress was recruited from city property owners, the third congress included elected peasants from volost rural assemblies.
Rice. 3. The zemstvo is having lunch.
- The next date for the judicial reforms of Alexander II was the reform of 1864. The court in Russia became public, open and public. The main prosecutor was the prosecutor, the defendant had his own defense lawyer. However, the main innovation was the introduction of a jury of 12 people at the trial. After the judicial debate, they rendered their verdict - “guilty” or “not guilty.” The jurors were recruited from men of all classes. The justice of the peace dealt with minor cases.
- In 1874, a reform was carried out in the army. By decree of D. A. Milyutin, recruitment was abolished. Russian citizens who reached the age of 20 lei were subject to compulsory military service. The period of service in the infantry was 6 years, the period of service in the navy was 7 years.
The abolition of conscription contributed to the great popularity of Alexander II among the peasantry.
The significance of the reforms of Alexander II
Noting all the pros and cons of the reforms of Alexander II, it should be noted that they contributed to the growth of the country's productive forces, the development of moral consciousness among the population, improving the quality of life of peasants in villages and the spread of primary education among peasants. It is worth noting the growth of industrial growth and the positive development of agriculture.
At the same time, the reforms did not affect the upper echelons of power at all; remnants of serfdom remained in local government; landowners enjoyed the support of noble intermediaries in disputes and openly deceived peasants when allocating plots. However, we should not forget that these were only the first steps towards a new capitalist stage of development.
What have we learned?
Liberal reforms studied in the history of Russia (grade 8) generally had positive results. Thanks to the abolition of serfdom, the remnants of the feudal system were finally eliminated, but the final formation of the capitalist system, like the developed Western countries, was still very far away.
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