International scientific and technological exchange. Coursework: International technology exchange Management contracts
Topic 7. International scientific and technological exchange
1.2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
The concept and significance of international scientific and technological exchange
Theories of the influence of technological progress on international trade.
International technology market.
Instruments for legal protection of intellectual property.
Main forms of international scientific and technical exchange.
Assessment of technology transfer volumes.
International technical assistance.
State regulation of technology transfer.
Prerequisites and consequences of international technology exchange
Features of scientific and technological exchange (STE)
Features of scientific and technological exchange (STE)Subject of NTO: scientific and technical
information (NTI) –
- this is a specific product that is characterized
intellectual property
– highly mobile dynamically
developing factor of production technology
NTI exchange –
– a form of international trade
intellectual property,
– a form of international movement
technologies.
Improvement of technology
expandsproduction
possibilities
society
increases overall
level
welfare
increases volume
release
ensures development
production of new
types of products
promotes
comprehensive
expansion of trade,
mutual
investing
national
production
complexes,
large-scale
integration,
cooperation in the scientific and technical sphere.
Main goals of international scientific and technical cooperation
increase in production volumes,improving product quality,
expansion of entry into countries
advanced technologies, know-how,
rationalization of foreign trade, in
particularly exports,
creation of new jobs and
increasing workers' incomes, first
all highly qualified.
Technologies:
knowledge thatCan
use
For
production
goods and services
scientific methods
achievements
practical
goals
include three
groups:
- technology
products,
- technology
processes
- technology
management
The system-forming role of technology
determinesleading trends in
national and
global socioeconomic
systems
– post-industrialization
yu economy
– intellectualization
society
changes the classic
picture of
factors
production:
- labor is concentrated in
technological fields
production, moving to
creative activity
– capital acquires
insubstantial features,
speaking in
insubstantial form
knowledge, information,
informational
technologies.
International technology transfer: definition
International technology transfer ismovement across the national boundaries of scientific and technical achievements –
design solutions, systematic
knowledge and production experience
commercial or non-profit
(free) basis
for better use
(redistribution) of resources, increasing
production efficiency and maximization
profits, including such stages and types
production activities as
industrial use, management
activities, marketing, etc. [Novitsky, p. 541].
Forms and channels of international technology transfer
Form groupstransfers
technologies
Commercial
Non-profit
- purchase of know-how,
Basic forms
transfer of technology patents, licenses,
- scientific and technical
publications
- educational literature
- reference books
- reviews
- abstract
publications
- materials
conferences,
symposia, etc.
Main channels
technology transfer
- personal contacts
scientists and
specialists;
- migration of scientists,
engineers and technicians.
information
packages;
- trade
high-tech
goods;
- supplies
technological
equipment;
- international
intellectual
migration.
- internal;
- foreign trade;
- international investment.
2. Theories of the influence of technological progress on international trade
2.1. Model of technical progress.2.2. Dynamic models
technological differences (Michael
Posner, in 1961)
2.3. Theory of technological
rupture and product life cycle
(Raymond Vernen, in 1966 - development
theory of M. Posner).
10. 2.1. John Hicks' model of technological progress
At the heart of technology developmentlies technological progress.
Two factors are examined
production - labor and capital,
whose relative price
remains constant.
Technological progress reduces
production costs and
increases production.
11. 2.1. John Hicks' model of technological progress
Types of TP according toinfluence on the pace
growth
productivity
and AF
Change
factor-saturated
industry
Neutral
(rates of growth
productivity
labor and capital are equal)
Factor ratio
no production
is changing
Labor saving
(performance
capital grows faster
than productivity
labor)
Height
capital saturation
industry
Capital saving
(performance
labor in relatively
to a greater extent than
capital)
Height
labor redundancy
industry
In conditions
absence
international
trade
technical progress
leads to growth
welfare
country in which he
happens because
volume increases
production
Types of influence of TP
for growth
production
goods and
international
trade in these
goods
neutral (tempo
trade (export) growth
equal to the growth rate
production)
positive (pace
trade (export) growth
higher than growth rate
production)
negative (pace
trade (export) growth
below growth rate
production)
12. 2.1. John Hicks' model of technological progress
Increased consumption as a result of technicalprogress can similarly be carried out by neutral,
positive and negative impact on international
trade.
Different combinations of production influences
(supply) and consumption (demand) can
change the country's terms of trade towards
improvement or deterioration, and to varying degrees
fast.
It is also important in which industries the technical
progress - labor-intensive or capital-intensive, and with what
goods produced in the industry compete with
export or import.
13. 2.2. Dynamic models of technological differences (Michael Posner, in 1961)
The development of new technology gives the countrytemporary monopoly in production and
export of goods based on it.
The country is the creator of technology and a pioneer in it
use becomes an exporter
relevant goods and contents included in them
technologies to other countries, even if this one
countries have no comparative advantage in
other factors of production.
With the distribution of these products throughout
world, the country-inventor loses its monopoly
on the technology of their production.
14. 2.3. The theory of technological gap and product life cycle (Raymond Vernen, in 1966 - development of the theory of M. Posner).
premise statement: somecountries (...) specialize in
production and export of technologically new
goods, while others (...) - on
production of already known goods.
(...) countries have more developed
factors of production (K and T), which allows
them to invest in technological
innovations and developments and gain from this
based on dynamic comparative
advantage over others
15. 2.3. Technology gap and product life cycle theory: 5 life cycle stages in international trade
New product stageGoods are produced and consumed in growing
scale in the country of the inventor. Quality
goods are brought to the market to
appropriate level.
Product growth stage
The product is improving, the scale is growing
production and sales on the domestic market,
goes abroad. Temporary monopoly
country of origin in production and
trade on the domestic market and abroad.
Product maturity stage
Production is standardized and part of it
transferred to countries with lower costs
labor. The imitator countries begin
manufacture goods under license for
domestic market.
Production decline stage
goods
Using cheaper labor,
the imitation country begins to sell goods on
market of the country of origin, displacing local
manufacturers.
Termination stage
domestic production
goods
Curtailment of domestic production of goods
in the country of invention and saturation
domestic demand due to imports from the simulating country. Creation of a new product in the country -
16. 3. International technology market.
technology transfer is carried out fromusing:
goods, in the case of international trade
high-tech goods;
capital, in case of international trade
capital-intensive goods;
labor, in case of international migration
highly qualified scientific and technical personnel;
land, in the case of international trade in natural resources
resources for the development of which were used
the latest scientific and technical means.
17. Material basis, prerequisite and consequence of the international technology market
Internationalseparation
technology, difference
in levels
International
technological
moving
production base
specific
goods - technologies
smooths out
technological
difference between
countries
18. Segments of the international technology market
trade in licenses,patents, know-how, etc.
similar
trade
technologically intensive
types of products,
moving
highly qualified
workers and
high-tech
capital
19. Operations on the international technology market:
exchange of scientific and technical information, its accumulation in banksdata, in particular the exchange of software products;
signing and implementation of general agreements on research and development (R&D)
counterparty with subsequent transfer of all information and rights
disposing of the results of developments to the customer (in particular,
rights to register a patent and production license);
general implementation based on direct connections with partners from different
countries of cooperative R&D regarding a specific
invention followed by common ownership of patent and right
granting licenses;
implementation of international scientific and technical programs on
development of the most important special problems based on
specialization and cooperation of R&D;
implementation of international comprehensive scientific and technical
programs.
20. 4. Instruments for legal protection of intellectual property
patentdocument that certifies authorship and priority
developer and gives him a monopoly right to
use of innovation for a certain time
(usually 15-20 years).
high
patent
duties
license
permission of the licensor (patent owner), which is issued
the licensee who receives ownership of the technology or
relevant rights to use technological knowledge
in production for a certain period and for a specified period
reward.
simple
exceptional
full
"know-how"
technical experience and trade secrets, information that
has commercial value
non-patent
license
copyright
copy protection, mainly for works
art and literature, use in the production of knowledge in
in the form of drawings, drawings, etc.
commodity
(brand name)
y) sign
or brand
placed on the company's products in the form of a drawing, initials
company founder, abbreviation, graphic image and
etc., is officially registered and prohibited for use
other companies without official permission.
21. 5. Main forms of international scientific and technical exchange
Licensed trade –agreement – payments:
royalty (periodic, 3-5%), lump sum payment (one-time),
profit sharing (10-30%), ownership participation (TNC)
Patent Agreement -
sale by the owner of the patent of rights to use the invention and
for the sale of licenses to the buyer of the patent
"Know-how"
provision of unpatented inventions that have
commercial value and provide certain
competitive advantages
Engineering
providing the technological knowledge needed to
acquisition, installation and use of purchased or
rented machinery and equipment
Franchising
agreement on the transfer by the franchisor of a trademark or trade mark
brand franchise, rights to use the trademark, provision of
ongoing technical assistance for a fee
Turnkey contracts
agreement for the construction of a facility, which, after its full
readiness for operation is transferred to the customer
Management contracts
the company sending managers to a foreign company to carry out
management functions for a certain period (usually from 3 to 5
years) and for a fee
State
agreements
on industrial and investment cooperation, on scientific, technical and production cooperation, etc.
22. 6. Assessment of technology transfer volumes
In the balance of payments - the line “royalties and license fees”payments" section of services within current operations
trade in technology “in its pure form” is displayed.
To estimate the volume of technology that is transferred through
trade in goods, classification is used
UNCTAD technological trade capacity
Technological trade capacity (TET) - share
research and development expenses in the amount
production and trade in individual goods
industries.
23. Assessment of technological capacity of goods
TMT is calculated for different industries,goods different countries peace. After
the average TMT is calculated.
high-tech intensive - all goods,
industries whose TET is above the average level for
of a given country, group of countries or industry
medium-tech capacious - if the value
TET close to average
low-tech intensive - if TET
significantly below average
24. Classification of goods by level of technological capacity in OECD countries
high-tech aerospace equipment (22.7%),trade (TET avg – 11.4%) office equipment and computers (17.5%),
electronics and its components (10.4%),
medicines (8.7%), devices (4.8%),
electrical equipment (4.4%)
medium technology-capacious cars (2.7%), chemicals (2.3%), others
industrial goods (1.8%), non-electric
trade (TET avg – 1.7%)
equipment (1.6%), rubber and plastics
(1.2%), non-ferrous metals (1%)
low-tech intensive
trade (TET avg – 0.5%)
brick, clay, glass (0.9%), food,
drinks and tobacco (0.8%), ferrous metals (0.6%),
metal products (0.4%), paper and wallpaper
(0.3%), wood and furniture (0.3%), textiles,
clothing and footwear (0.2%).
25. 7. International technical assistance
Technical support programsassistance has been implemented since the mid-70s.
on a bilateral or multilateral basis,
Purpose - technical assistance
developing countries or countries with
transition economy in the region
technological and management
processes.
26. Technical assistance
Forms of transfer of know-how:– realization of monetary and
budget policy,
- professional training
specialists,
- software development
economic development
the country as a whole and its individual
regions,
– technical and economic
justification for individual
projects,
– consultations,
– partnership,
– general research,
– providing countries with
paid or gratuitous
the basis of assistance in the areas
process technology,
products and management.
Forms of distribution
help:
– Technology grants
- A joint
financing
Technical assistance in
multilateral
agreements along the line
international
organizations:
–
–
–
–
UN
IMF
IBRD
MB et al.
27. 8. State regulation of technology transfer: reasons
technology is the basis of the country's international competitivenessand its national security
desire to maintain technological leadership, which in
can provide leadership in the long term
economic
supporting national security through restriction
export of technology to hostile countries
terms of international agreements, according to which it is necessary
control over the sale of technology that may be
used for the production of chemical, bacteriological,
missile weapons
the import of technologies is limited to reduce foreign
competition and job retention
foreign technologies may not correspond to national ones
standards
28. State regulation of technology transfer: methods
straightexport controls, customs and border controls;
indirect
state system of registration of patents and trade
signs. Violation of laws in this area is a state matter
crime - and is prosecuted.
The import of technologies is regulated based on considerations
law and order, security for
society.
Often the level of general technological development
country does not allow the use of foreign
technology of a more developed country.
29. Prerequisites and consequences of international technology exchange. Sellers' interest:
Firstly, compared to the movement of goods and capital oninternational market technology, fewer barriers and
restrictions, so external expansion is easier
carry out by selling a license abroad, than to achieve development
a new market for even new high-tech products.
Secondly, when selling new technologies to their foreign
branches of transnational companies do not lose their monopoly
the right to use it and do not weaken their position on
world market.
Thirdly, international scientific and technical exchange is often
accompanied by additional supplies of raw materials,
equipment, semi-finished products, etc., which allows you to increase
export volumes (escort effect).
Fourth, as a result of mutual and cross exchange
licenses, a company can gain access to the necessary
innovation that a foreigner has at its disposal
a partner that is important in industries that
produce a wide variety of products and often
variable technology (chemical, light, food
industry, etc.)
30. Prerequisites and consequences of international technology exchange. Buyers Interest:
Firstly, the buyer receives a significantsaving money and time by importing
new technologies compared to
independent developments in this
areas.
Secondly, by receiving new technologies, the country
gets the opportunity in a short time
eliminate your technical gap in
one area or another
Thirdly, since they are already on sale
practically mastered technologies,
the buyer reduces his costs and time for
mastering the production process, in addition
with the help of the seller.
31. Stages of international scientific and technical exchange
technology selection and acquisition;adaptation and mastery of new
technologies;
development of local capabilities for
improvement of technology with
taking into account the needs of national
market
32. R&D expenditures and GDP
R&D expenses andGDPShare of top 15 countries
in global GDP (by
PPP) according to the IMF
16.63% China
15.95% USA
6.81% India
4.38% Japan
3.45% Germany
3.29% Russia
3.01% Brazil
2.47% Indonesia
2.38% France
2.36% UK
1.98% Mexico
1.96% Italy
1.64% South Korea
1.48% Saudi Arabia
1.47% Canada
30.75% other countries
33. Share of the largest 15 countries in global GDP (PPP) according to the IMF
16.63% China15.95% USA
6.81% India
4.38% Japan
3.45% Germany
3.29% Russia
3.01% Brazil
2.47% Indonesia
2.38% France
2.36% UK
1.98% Mexico
1.96% Italy
1.64% South Korea
1.48% Saudi Arabia
1.47% Canada
30.75% other countries
34. Spending on science in the world is growing faster than GDP
https://www.vedomosti.ru/opinion/articles/2015/11/11/616506-rashodinauku-rastutIn developed countries - largely due to non-governmental
financing
11.11.1523:20
Nikolay Epple
New UNESCO report on the development of world science (UNESCO Science
Report: towards 2030), presented on Tuesday in Paris, pleases –
at least something in the world is going well. Science costs and volume
completed work is growing quickly and steadily.
UNESCO issues such reports every five years - sufficient
time for important new trends to make themselves felt. Among
the main thing is the awareness by many countries that the development of science is
factor ensuring economic growth. Growth in spending on science since 2007
by 2013 amounted to 30.7%, outpacing global GDP growth (20%). Share
developed countries (about 70% of all global R&D expenditures)
is gradually decreasing (increasing in absolute numbers), and
developing countries are rapidly increasing their activity (share
countries of Southeast Asia increased from 29 to 37%). Much,
by 21%, the number of researchers also increased. Scientific publications from
2008 to 2014 increased by 23%.
35. globalization of science
Another important trend is the globalization of science. Universitiesare turning into international institutions, student mobility and
international cooperation is taking on unprecedented proportions.
In developed countries, it is becoming increasingly important as businesses realize and
industry, the role of innovation is acquired by non-state
funding of science. In developing countries, we can talk about
the success of state policy to support it. In China (second in the world in terms of
share of spending on science after the USA) the number of publications has increased over five years
doubled. South Korea, Brazil, and Iran are making noticeable progress.
Russia demonstrates slow growth (this concerns primarily
number of scientific publications and researchers), lost in the background
a sharp breakthrough in other countries. The problem is the over-centralization of science,
reminiscent of the situation at the end of the 1990s. Growth of raw material income in 2000–2008
gg. did not motivate businesses to invest in science, and since 2010 this
The state became actively involved, doubling investments in R&D in four years.
In recent years, the share of direct and indirect budget expenditures in
financing of science reaches 70%.
As the authors of the chapter on Russia note, for further
development requires strategic planning and stable
financing, integration of Russian science into the world, ensuring
for business comfortable conditions for investing in science. Alas, how
The story of the Dynasty Foundation shows the conditions for investing in science
in Russia they must be comfortable, first of all, for the authorities.
36. financing of scientific activities
Increased funding of scientific activities is an internal factoreconomical growth.
This is due to light evidence when dealing with less than 0.4% of GDP, science in
At the very least, the sociocultural function may be lost.
0.4 – 0.89 - ability to produce scientific results and results
in addition to the cognitive function.
І even with spending on science, which exceeds 0.9% of GDP,
The economy function is activated.
Therefore, in the guilty countries there is a tendency to increase allocations for
NDDKR: global spending has grown more rapidly over the past decade,
lower global GDP.
Increase in the remaining ten years of capital investment growth
NDDKR is observed in the USA (by 46%), Japan (by 27%), EU-27 (by
18%). High rates are also demonstrated by Finland, Israel, Korea and
Japan, which is known for its widespread economic
systems to intensify the development of knowledge and technology
37. Indicators of scientific intensity of GDP in the world
Share of contributions to NDDKR from GDP, %Kraina
Ukraine
0,75
Russia
1,16
Italy
1,26
Great Britain
1,77
Canada
1,80
Slovenia
2,11
France
2,26
USA
2,79
Nіmechchina
2,82
Switzerland
2,99
Denmark
3,06
Sweden
3,40
Japan
3,45
Korea
3,74
Finland
3,88
Israel
4,40
38. Rating of R&D expenditures in countries of the world, % of GDP in 2012.
1Israel
4.40
10
Austria
2.75
2
Finnish
diya
3.88
13
Australia
and I
2.37
3
South
Korea
3.74
14
France
I
2.25
4
Sweden
3.40
20
Velikob
ritania
1.76
5
Japan
3.36
21
China
1.70
6
Denmark
3.06
30
Brazil
I
1.16
7
Swiss
Riya
2.99
31
Hungary
1.16
8
Connect
data
States
America
2.90
32
Russia
1.16
39.
40. Despite all the difficulties, humanity is still moving along the path of science, technology and innovation. Expenditures on science in state budgets
Despite all the difficulties, humanity stillmoves along the path of science, technology and innovation. Expenses
for science in state budgets every year
are growing both in absolute and relative terms
[UNESCO science report “Towards 2030”].
Over five years, global R&D intensity in the world
increased from 1.57% (2007) to 1.70% (2013) of GDP. IN
In 2013, global gross R&D expenditure reached
$1,478 billion (at purchasing parity
abilities) and increased by 47% compared to 2007.
Geopolitical events-factors in the development of science and
technologies in the last 5 years:
“Arab Spring” 2011 (new constitution with a law on 1% expenditure.
For R&D),
nuclear deal with Iran in 2015 (increase in R&D costs due to
application and lifting of sanctions)
creation in 2015 of the Economic Community Association
states of Southeast Asia (ASEAN).
41. Factors in the development of R&D in the world
politics and the general state of government;environmental crises of natural and anthropogenic
character;
man-made disasters can also turn away
society from science and technology, example - nuclear
energy
Despite all the difficulties, spending on science is still
growing faster than GDP
in countries rich in natural resources, high rates
growth due to mining is deprived
business sector incentives to focus on
innovation and sustainable development (“Resource
curse" for science)
42. Currently, about 7.8 million scientists are employed in scientific research worldwide. In Russia, the number of researchers in 2007–2013 was
Currently in scientific research around the worldemploys about 7.8 million scientists. In Russia the quantity
researchers in 2007–2013 decreased from 469.1 thousand to
440.6 thousand. The EU remains the world leader in number
researchers (its share is 22.2%). Since 2011
China (19.1%) overtook the USA (16.7%), Japan's share in the world
decreased from 10.7% (2007) to 8.5% (2013), and the share
Russian Federation from 7.3% to 5.7%.
very serious increase in the number of patents
USPTO registered 2008–2013
Over five years their number has increased
from 157,768 to 277,832
1. Non-traditional service as a product of scientific and technical progress.
2. Technological exchange:
a) licensed trade. Types of licenses;
b) forms of technological exchange
3. Engineering services in international trade.
4. Leasing in foreign trade relations.
1. What services arise thanks to STP?
2. What is a patent, license, copyright, trademark?
3. What types of licenses are there?
4. Through what channels is technological exchange carried out?
5. What is the license agreement?
6. Name the stages of licensing agreements as prices fall.
7. What are the features of pricing in the licensing agreement market?
8. What types of reimbursement of the license price (licensing fees) do you know?
9. What is engineering? What groups are engineering services divided into?
10. What is leasing? Provide a leasing scheme.
11. Give the concept of operating leasing, financial, direct, indirect, export and import leasing, rating, hiring.
12. What is the share of a group of countries in the leasing services market?
13. Why is technology a determining factor in countries' competitive advantages in international trade?
14. Describe the technological life cycle of a product in international trade.
Topic of practical lesson No. 12.
Pricing in international trade
1) The concept of world price. Price levels.
2) Types of world prices.
3) Types of discounts on world prices.
4) Basic prices. Basic terms of delivery.
5) Contract prices and their types.
Assignments and questions for discussion.
1. What is meant by multiple prices?
2. What are the world price levels?
3. What are the conditions under which the prices of trade transactions correspond to world prices?
4. What is the published price, seller's price, buyer's price?
5. What are the published prices?
6. What determines the size of the discount from the published price?
7. List the types of discounts from published prices?
8. In what cases are settlement prices applied?
9. What is the basic price, basic delivery terms?
10. What are the current basic delivery conditions? In what cases do certain basic conditions apply?
11. What types of contract prices are there in terms of their fixation?
12. What parts does the moving price and power price consist of?
No lab plans provided.
Topic 1. Guidelines: The main goal of the topic is to master the concepts of an open economy and economic security, structure and current trends in the development of international trade.
Topic 2. Guidelines: The main goal of the topic is to master the classical, new and latest theories of international trade, to understand the mechanism of formation of the world market based on the equilibrium model.
Topic 3. Guidelines: The main goal of the topic is to know the differences between the concepts of the world market, world economy, international trade, to be able to determine the commodity and geographical structure of international trade, to know the classification of countries.
Topic 4. Guidelines: The main goal of the topic is to understand the goals, objectives and principles of the foreign trade policy of the Republic of Kazakhstan, to be able to determine the commodity and geographical structure of the foreign trade of the Republic of Kazakhstan, to know the competitive and non-competitive advantages of the foreign trade of the Republic of Kazakhstan.
Topic 5. Guidelines: The main goal of the topic is to study the problems (pros and cons) of Kazakhstan’s accession to the WTO.
For each abstract, a speaker and two opponents are assigned, who must make additions or enter into discussion with the main speaker. This participation is subject to mandatory assessment.
Topic 6. Guidelines: The main goal of the topic is to understand the types of customs duties and be able to construct graphs of import and export tariffs. When solving problems, use knowledge of microeconomics on the topic “Fundamentals of supply and demand analysis.”
Topic 7. Guidelines: The main goal of the topic is to know the classification of non-tariff methods, be able to use these methods for specific cases, and learn the tools for measuring non-tariff methods. When constructing graphs, use knowledge of microeconomics on the topic “Fundamentals of supply and demand analysis.”
Topic 8. Guidelines: The main goal of the topic is to learn how to use various types of customs regimes for specific cases when exporting and importing goods, to consider cases of levying customs duties, and to be able to depict patterns of movement of goods under various customs regimes.
Topic 9. Guidelines: The main goal of the topic is to distinguish between the forms and methods of international trade, to know the reasons for the spread of countertrade, and to study the various types of trade intermediaries.
For each abstract, a speaker and two opponents are assigned, who must make additions or enter into discussion with the main speaker. This participation is subject to mandatory assessment.
Topic 10. Guidelines: The main goal of the topic is to distinguish between traditional and non-traditional services, to study the composition of the global services market, the place of the Republic of Kazakhstan in this market, as well as what trade policy instruments should be used to limit the access of foreign service providers to the domestic market.
Topic 11. Guidelines: The main goal of the topic is to study non-traditional services as a product of scientific and technological progress, the place of the Republic of Kazakhstan in the market of non-traditional services, and the peculiarities of pricing in the licensing agreement market.
For each abstract, a speaker and two opponents are assigned, who must make additions or enter into discussion with the main speaker. This participation is subject to mandatory assessment.
Topic 12. Guidelines: The main goal of the topic is to study the types of world prices, understand the types of world price discounts, know in which cases settlement prices are applied, certain basic delivery conditions, and what types of contract prices there are.
11 Lesson plans for students’ independent work under the guidance of a teacher
SRSP Topic No. 1. Introduction to the course
"International trade and world prices"
Tasks:
1) Calculation of export, import, foreign trade quotas for individual countries and groups of countries. Execution of calculations in the form of a table. Justify the degree of openness of individual countries. Determining the place of the Republic of Kazakhstan in terms of economic openness.
2) Analyze the commodity structure of international trade for the period from 1940 to 2008. Draw conclusions.
3) Analyze the geographical structure of international trade for the period from 1940 to 2008. Draw conclusions.
Form of conduct: work with statistical collections.
Study and comprehension educational material must be accompanied by an understanding of the content of the categories (law, subject, object) and mandatory reinforcement of the material in the form of specific examples.
SRSP Topic No. 2.
“The theory of international trade and its development in the modern era”
Abstract topic:
1. “Dutch disease”: causes, consequences, possible solutions.
2. M. Porter’s theory of competition and the possibilities of its application in Kazakhstan.
3. Theory of scale effect.
4. Technology gap theory.
5. The theory of “catch-up product cycle” or “flying flock of geese”.
6. The theory of intra-industry trade.
7. Theory and reconciliation of production factors.
8. Similarity preference theory.
Form of conduct: Writing an essay on the topic, speaking at a practical lesson. Opposition.
For each abstract, a speaker and two opponents are assigned, who must make additions or enter into discussion with the main speaker. This participation is subject to mandatory assessment.
SRSP Topic No. 3.
"Structure and dynamics of international trade"
Exercise:
1) Consideration of the dynamics of world industrial production and world trade in 1980-2000 (annual changes), as a percentage, in billions of dollars.
2) Calculation of the share of individual groups of states in world exports and imports in 1980-2000 as a percentage.
3) Consideration of the growth rates of exports and imports by groups of countries 1980-2000. (annual changes in physical volume), in percent.
4) Determination of the commodity structure of world exports by individual groups of goods for 1950 - 2004, in percentage.
Abstract topic:
1. Commodity and geographical structure of foreign trade of one of the foreign exchanges.
2. Commodity and geographical structure of foreign trade of one of the developing countries.
3. Commodity and geographical structure of foreign trade of one of the countries with a transition economy.
4. The role and place of the EU in international trade.
5. NAFTA and its importance in international trade.
6. NIS and their role in international trade and regional commodity exchange.
7. International trade between the EU and the USA.
Form of conduct: Working with his statistical collections and writing abstracts.
Know the differences between the concepts of the world market, world economy, international trade, be able to determine the commodity and geographical structure of international trade, know the classification of countries.
The study and comprehension of educational material should be accompanied by an understanding of the content of the categories and the obligatory reinforcement of the material in the form of specific examples.
SRSP Topic No. 4.
"Foreign trade of the Republic of Kazakhstan"
1) Topic of abstracts:
1. The Republic of Kazakhstan and the Russian Federation: bilateral trade.
2. Mutual trade between the Republic of Kazakhstan and China.
3. The Republic of Kazakhstan and the Eurasian Union: Mutual trade.
4. Participation of the Republic of Kazakhstan in regional unions.
2) Presentation of the topic: Problems and prospects for the integration of the Republic of Kazakhstan into the international trade system.
3) Analyze the commodity structure of exports and imports of the Republic of Kazakhstan for 1991 – 2004.
4) Analyze the geographical structure of exports and imports of the Republic of Kazakhstan for 1991 – 2004.
Form of conduct: Writing abstracts, presenting topics, working with statistical materials.
Methodological recommendations for implementation: To master the goals, objectives and principles of the foreign trade policy of the Republic of Kazakhstan, to be able to determine the commodity and geographical structure of the foreign trade of the Republic of Kazakhstan, to know the competitive and non-competitive advantages of the foreign trade of the Republic of Kazakhstan.
SRSP Topic No. 5.
. International technology exchange
International technological exchange (technology transfer) is understood as the totality of economic relations between different countries regarding the transfer of scientific and technical achievements
The development of the international technology market (international technological exchange) is due to the acceleration of scientific and technological progress (nin). Expansion of research and development work (RD. DDKR) requires huge financial costs, expensive equipment, and highly qualified personnel. The rapid development of trade in technology, scientific and technical knowledge is largely associated with significant differences in the technical level of individual countries. Under acceleration conditions. STP advanced equipment and technology are concentrated in a small group of industrialized countries and spend huge amounts of money on. ND. OCD. So, in. US costs for. R&D exceeds expenses for these purposes c. Germany,. France,. England. Italy. Japan combined. Therefore in. The United States is home to most of the world's leading scientific research.
Widely uses foreign scientific and technical knowledge. Japan, which gave it the opportunity to produce new products improved through its own scientific research
International technological exchange has been successfully used. Germany, which, with the help of foreign licenses, modernized the production base of transport engineering, chemical, electrical industries e.
Developing countries, in order to be competitive in the world market, are forced to develop their technical base in the same direction as developed countries
Purchasing advanced foreign technology is an important means of overcoming technical backwardness, creating our own industry capable of meeting the needs of the domestic market and reducing dependence on imports.
The exchange of scientific and technical knowledge provides individual countries that do not have sufficient financial resources to conduct it. R&D, achieving high rates of economic development through the use of advanced technologies from other regions.
. Forms of technological exchange
In the international technology market, technology transfer is carried out non-commercially and commercially
non-commercial form of technological exchange are:
o technical, scientific and professional journals, patent publications, periodicals and other specialized literature;
o databases and data banks;
o international exhibitions, fairs, symposiums, conferences;
o exchange of delegations;
o migration of scientists and specialists;
o internships for scientists and specialists in companies, universities, organizations;
o teaching undergraduate and graduate students;
o activities of international organizations in the field of science and technology
Forms of technology subject to international exchange on a commercial basis include tangible and intangible types of technology, as well as services
I. Material types of technologies:
o turnkey enterprises;
o technological lines;
o units, equipment, tools, etc.
This type of technological exchange is associated with direct investments in the construction, reconstruction, and modernization of firms and industries
II. Intangible types of technologies:
o patent - a certificate issued by the relevant government agency to the inventor and certifies his monopoly right to use this invention;
o license - permission issued by the owner of a technology (licensor), protected or unprotected by a patent, to an interested party (licensee) to use this technology for a certain time for a certain fee
o trademark - a symbol (drawing, graphic image, combination of letters, etc.) of a certain organization, which is used to individualize the manufacturer of a product and which cannot be used by other bodies without the official permission of the owner
o know-how - the provision of technical knowledge, practical experience of a technical, commercial, managerial, financial and other nature, which are of commercial value, used in production and professional practice and are not provided with patent protection.
III. Services: scientific and technical, engineering, consulting, personnel training, etc.
. Features of modern international technological exchange
In modern conditions of international technological exchange the following features are inherent:
1 . Development of the high technology market
time, the trend is considered progressive not just to increase the country’s export potential, but to its “intellectualization”, i.e. increasing the share of knowledge-intensive high-tech goods in the overall structure of exports. This is a factor in economic growth. International technological exchange can, to a certain extent, compensate for the lack of funds to finance the scientific and technological development of the country.
There is a direct connection between a country's technological progress and its market competitiveness. Changes in the competitiveness of various countries in the global market for technically complex goods do not occur simultaneously with similar changes in the respective positions of countries in the development and implementation of new technologies.
The generally accepted classification of high technologies for the export and import of products embodying new and leading technology is the classification developed in. USA, which is used by international organizations to make statistical comparisons between different countries. This classification system allows the study of trade in high technology products in 10 main technological areas:
o biotechnology- medical and industrial application of advanced genetic research aimed at creating new drugs, hormones and other therapeutic products for use in medicine and rural government
o technologies of human life sciences- application of scientific achievements in medicine (in addition to biological ones). For example, advances in medical technology in the areas of nuclear resonance imaging, echocardiography, the latest chemical technologies associated with the production of drugs that form new products that allow us to treat and prevent diseases;
o optoelectronics- development of electronic products and components that conduct and respond to light. For example, optical scanners, optical CDs, solar panels, photocells, laser printers;
o computers and telecommunications- development of products that process a growing amount of information in a short time. For example, fax machines, telephone switching devices, radars, communication satellites, servers, computers and related hardware peripherals, as well as software products;
o electronics- development of electronics (without optoelectronic components), such as integrated circuits, circuit boards, liquid crystals and other components, allowing significant improvement and development of basic functions, as well as miniaturization of products
o computerized production- development of technologies for automation of industrial production. For example, robots, machines and devices with numerical control, automated means of transportation, due to which production flexibility is significantly increased and human involvement in the technological process is reduced;
o new materials- improvement and creation of materials, such as semiconductors, optical. Fiber cables, video disks, etc., with the help of which the use of other advanced technologies is improved;
o aerospace technologies- production of most military and civilian helicopters, airplanes and spacecraft (without communication satellites), jet aircraft engines, flight simulators and autopilots;
o weapons- development of technologies for military use for the production of conventional weapons, missiles, bombs, mines, torpedoes, missile launch complexes, etc.;
o nuclear technologies- development of equipment for nuclear power plants, in particular nuclear reactors and their parts, equipment for isotope splitting, manufacturing of fuel rods, etc. (Equipment for medical use is more related to the group of human life sciences.
2. Monopoly of the largest firms in the technology markets. Scientific research is concentrated in the largest firms in industrialized countries, since only they have sufficient financial resources to conduct expensive research. For example, in. C. US costs for. R&D in total sales per employee c. TNK IBM and Eastman Kozak account for 6%, Boeing and Honeywell account for 5%, Dupont de Nemours and Xerox. Ford Motor - 3uot; Xerox - 4, General Motors, Ford Motor - 3%.
Transnational corporations are actively involved in the event. R&D of their foreign branches and subsidiaries, which are characterized by an increase in the share of expenses for scientific development in the total amount of these expenses. T. TN.
3. Technology policy. TNK Recently there have been changes in directions. R&D carried out. TNK. Research is shifting to areas that determine success in production and sales activities:
o improvement of traditional types of products for their better adaptation to the requirements of the world market;
o creating fundamentally new products, researching markets where high profits can be expected;
o improvement of existing and creation of new technology. An important place in technology policy. TNK occupies an international
scientific and technical cooperation by creating strategic alliances between. TNCs from different countries to jointly solve scientific and technical problems within the framework of strategic alliances. TNCs carry out joint activities. R&D, carry out mutual exchange of scientific achievements and production experience, training of qualified personnel. By creating strategic alliances. TNCs are reducing lead times. R&D, which is very important in the context of the rapid development of technology and the reduction of the life cycle of goods and technological processes; distribute significant amounts of expenses between firms when conducting joint ventures. R&D, gain access to the scientific and technical achievements of the alliance partner and distribute the risk of failure in implementation. NDDKKR.
4. Relationships. TNK with developing. TNCs are trying to create a production structure that would ensure the economic and technical dependence of developing ones. Yes, in these countries. TNCs create enterprises to produce components for products supplied to subsidiaries in other countries. Transferring technologies for the production of intermediate products to countries with cheap labor. TNCs thereby reduce their costs. LLC ariiv.
Often. TNCs move to developing countries, production of goods, life cycle which have expired and the profit from the sale of which is gradually decreasing. They receive these goods at low prices, and then sell them to their distribution network under their well-known brand, receiving increased profits.
The technology that is transferred to developing countries is usually poorly adapted to their capabilities, since it is designed taking into account the level of development and industrial structure of developed countries.
Developing countries account for about 10% of international technological exchange, which is explained by the small capacity of their technology market
5. Participation in international technological exchange of "venture" firms (small and medium-sized firms with up to 1 employee thousand people). The advantage of these firms in the technology market lies in their narrow specialization. By producing a limited range of products, these firms gain access to highly specialized global markets; do not incur additional expenses for market research and advertising; pay more attention to the direct solution of scientific and technical tasks.
The sale of licenses is the most competitive form of technology transfer for venture firms, because they cannot compete with large corporations either in the scale of export of high-tech products or in the export of entrepreneurial capital.
6 . Development of international technical assistance. This assistance is provided by developed countries to developing countries and countries with economies in transition in the field of transfer of technical knowledge, experience, technology, technological developments, and personnel training. International technical assistance programs are aimed at improving the technical level of recipient countries and are carried out on a multilateral basis, including through international organizations (for example, the IMF, the World Bank, etc.) or on a bilateral basis. Technical assistance is provided in the form of free technology grants for the country that is developing to receive technology-intensive goods, financial resources for the purchase of technology, personnel training, as well as in the form of co-financing, that is, the recipient of assistance according to the agreement not only organizationally ensures its receipt, but also partially finances, although its share of financial participation in the total cost of the project is insignificant.
Introduction
1 Features of the global technology market
2 Main forms of international technology transfer
2.1 Licensed trade
2.2 Franchising
2.3 Engineering
2.4 Consulting
2.5 Turnkey contracts
2.6 Management contracts
2.7 International technical assistance
3 State regulation of the intellectual property market
Conclusion
List of sources used
Introduction
The scientific and technological revolution and the development of productive forces are leading to an ever greater deepening of the international division of labor. Under these conditions, trade and economic relations between countries are characterized by the rapid expansion of scientific, technical and industrial cooperation, the significance of which is much greater than the commercial effect obtained from the transfer or acquisition of technology on certain commercial terms.
It is through technological exchange that it is possible to solve the issues of increasing the technological level of certain industries and the national economy as a whole, the tasks of accelerated technological re-equipment of the economy, expanding export opportunities and reducing imports, developing technical and economic relations between countries on the basis of specialization and cooperation in the production of various types of products .
All major forms are involved in the sphere of technological exchange human activity(science, technology, production, management), starting from the theoretical laws of knowledge of nature (science), the experience of its transformation (technology) and to the creation of material resources and goods (production) with the improvement of methods of rational action in solving production and other problems (management) . At the same time, all four forms of human activity, as well as any combinations of them, can be included in the exchange.
If we separate from the field of trade and economic relations the exchange of raw materials and food products, which are in one way or another connected with geographical, climatic conditions and the presence of minerals, then the remaining part of foreign economic relations in today's world will be a consequence of the international division of labor, based on the uneven development of various types of technology , the level of which determines the competitiveness of goods on the market, their quality and cost, and, consequently, the profit received upon sale.
If we exclude consumer goods, then the remainder of the international economic exchange will be an exchange of technology either in its “pure form” - in the form of knowledge, experience and scientific and technical information, or “embodied” in materials, machines and equipment. This part of foreign economic relations represents a vast area of exchange, the ultimate goal of which, on the one hand, is to increase the technical and technological level of production, and on the other, to generate profits.
In the age of high technologies and revolutionary inventions, this branch of international economic relations is becoming increasingly relevant, including for the Russian economy, a country that has a very significant potential for intangible assets, although it does not yet have an effectively established system for trading technologies and know-how with foreign partners, since in the foreseeable past this area of activity was completely under the undivided jurisdiction of the state. However, there are quite clear prospects for development and there is reason to believe that Russia will gradually reach the same level as the most developed countries in the field of international export and import of licenses, because this is simply necessary for the full development of the country's economy.
The purpose of this essay is to consider strategies and forms of international scientific and technical cooperation in the global economy.
1. Features of the global technology market
In the international economy, technology is usually viewed as a developed factor of production, characterized by high international mobility, and the concept of “technology” itself is interpreted as a set of scientific and technical knowledge that can be used in the production of goods and services.
The acceleration of scientific and technological progress led to the creation in the 2nd half of the 20th century. a new world market - a technological one, which operates along with the world labor and capital markets. The material basis for the emergence and functioning of this market is the international division of technologies, which represents the historically established or acquired concentration of this product in individual countries.
The uneven development of scientific and technological progress creates significant technological differences between individual countries. Therefore, the international movement of technology smoothes out technological differences between countries.
The concept of international technological exchange in a broad sense means the penetration of any scientific and technical knowledge and the exchange of production experience between countries, and in a narrow sense - the transfer of scientific and technical knowledge and experience related to the reproduction of specific technological processes.
Technological exchange in a broad sense is carried out, as a rule, in non-commercial forms:
– scientific and technical publications;
– holding exhibitions, fairs, symposiums;
– exchange of delegations and meetings of scientists and engineers;
– migration of specialists;
– training of undergraduate and graduate students;
– activities of international organizations for cooperation in the field of science and technology, etc.
Technological exchange in a narrow sense is carried out, as a rule, in commercial forms:
– transfer, under the terms of licensing agreements, of the rights to use inventions (patents, know-how, registered trademarks, industrial designs), technical documentation;
– supply of machines and various industrial equipment;
– provision of technical assistance;
– engineering services;
– export of complete equipment;
– training and internship of specialists;
– management contracts;
– scientific, technical and production cooperation, etc.
The transfer of technology in commercial forms implies that the technology is a specific commodity. The buyer of a new technology receives at his disposal scientific and technical developments and/or created production and technological processes. The use of such developments and processes as elements of productive capital makes it possible to produce commercial products with increased competitiveness and to receive additional profits over a long period due to their uniqueness or lower production costs per unit of finished product.
The increased competitiveness of products produced using new technology is inversely related to the scale of distribution (availability) of this technology. Additional profits disappear as soon as technical improvements become the property of the majority of enterprises in the industry or even more advanced technology appears. The higher the degree of monopolization of scientific and technical knowledge and production and management experience, the stronger the position of the owner of the technology in the product market. Thus, it is quite understandable that countries and individual firms that have achieved a high technical level want to maintain their monopoly on new technologies.
At the same time, technology as a commodity has a very high cost, determined by the large costs of R&D and their implementation. The transfer of this cost to the final product occurs gradually, after huge costs have already been incurred. The owners of a new technology are interested in reimbursing the costs incurred, which can be achieved either by expanding their own production of goods based on it, or by selling this technology before it becomes obsolete. All this pushes them to utilize it as much as possible, both in their own production and by selling similar goods to other manufacturers. Technologies are transferred to two main groups of buyers:
– foreign branches or subsidiaries of TNCs;
– independent companies.
New technologies are mainly provided by TNCs to their branches or subsidiaries. For example, in the 80s, this group of buyers accounted for about 4/5 of the total technology sales of American TNCs. This is due to the fact that as a result of technology transfer to branches:
– the contradiction between the need for widespread use of new technology in order to obtain maximum profit and the threat of loss of monopoly ownership of scientific and technical achievements that arises in connection with this is largely overcome;
– specific R&D costs are reduced and at the same time, leaks of classified information outside TNCs are eliminated;
– the profits of parent companies increase, since in many countries payments for new technology received are exempt from taxation. Host countries often restrict imports of goods and foreign direct investment in various forms. When selling technology, there is an opportunity to penetrate the closed market of another country, since the technology is followed by goods and services entering the host country.
Selling technology to independent companies means losing the monopoly right to use it. In addition, a technology buyer with significant scientific and technical potential may subsequently become a serious competitor. By selling technology to independent companies, sellers seek to obtain equity, combine technology transfer with the supply of their equipment, and compensate for the loss of a technology monopoly by maximizing the proceeds from the sale.
All forms of technological exchange do not exist on their own, but are determined by the content of technology and reflect the dialectical process of its origin, flourishing, aging and replacement with a new one. The following types correspond to the stages of the technology life cycle:
Stage 1 – unique;
Stage 2 – progressive;
Stage 3 – traditional;
Stage 4 – obsolete.
Unique technologies include inventions and other scientific and technical developments that are protected by patents or contain know-how, which makes it impossible for them to be used by competing organizations. These technologies are novel, have the highest technical level, and can be used in production under the conditions of an exclusive monopoly. Such technologies are created as a result of R&D and inventive activities of specialists. When determining the price of a unique technology on the market, its ability to create maximum additional profit for its buyer is taken into account.
Progressive technologies include developments that have novelty and technical and economic advantages compared to analogue technologies used by potential buyers of the new technology and their competitors. Unlike unique technology, the advantages of advanced technology are relative. The progressiveness of a particular technology can manifest itself within the borders of individual countries, different companies, and in different conditions of its application. These technologies are not protected by patents and do not have pronounced know-how, but the fairly high production advantages provided by such technologies guarantee their customers additional profits. Progressive technologies can be created as a result of not only the scientific, technical and inventive activities of scientists and engineers, but also the “evolution” of unique innovations that gradually lose their novelty.
Traditional (conventional) technology represents developments that reflect the average level of production achieved by the majority of product manufacturers in the industry. This technology does not provide its buyer with significant technical and economic advantages and product quality compared to similar products from leading manufacturers, and one cannot count on additional (above average) profits in this case. Its advantages for the buyer are the relatively low cost and the opportunity to purchase technology tested in production conditions. Traditional technology is created, as a rule, as a result of obsolescence and large-scale dissemination of advanced technology. Such technology is usually sold at prices that compensate the seller for the costs of preparing it and obtaining an average profit.
Morally obsolete technology refers to developments that do not ensure the production of products of average quality and with technical and economic indicators that are achieved by most manufacturers of similar products. The use of such developments perpetuates the technological backwardness of its owners.
The technology market is segmented. In that part of it where trade in licenses, patents, know-how, etc. takes place, technology acts as an independent factor of production. In other segments of this market, where technologies are materialized in technologically intensive products, skilled workers, and high-tech capital, the international movement of technologies merges with the intercountry movement of goods, labor and capital.
The most important prerequisite for the emergence and functioning of the technology market is the legal protection of scientific and technical knowledge and intellectual property. Legal protection is intended to provide scientists, inventors, and developers of new technologies with the exclusive right to dispose of the results of their work for a certain period and to exclude the possibility of gratuitous use of these results by third parties. The most common instruments for legal protection of technologies are patents, licenses, copyright, trademark or mark.
A patent is the recognition by the state and registration of the rights of a legal or natural person to authorship and control of the invention of a completely new product or production process or a significant improvement of an existing product or technology in the form of a document issued by a competent government agency to the inventor, which certifies his authorship and priority, and also gives him a monopoly right to use the innovation for a certain time (usually 15–20 years). To obtain patent approval, an inventor must submit to the patent office complete information about the invention, as well as evidence that the product contains original, completely new features, and demonstrate its industrial application.
The purpose of the patent system is twofold: first, to encourage invention and inventors to bear the risk and expense of discovering new paths in science and production, which is compensated by temporary monopoly rights to all profits from their work. Secondly, it promotes the dissemination of advanced technology for the benefit of the entire society.
The patent protection system allows society to have complete and regular information about new inventions and helps accelerate the introduction of new technologies into production.
However, the abuse of a patent monopoly can also lead to the exact opposite result - an artificial inhibition of scientific and technological progress. The history of technology development contains many examples of this kind.
Registration of a patent and its maintenance require the payment of high patent fees. Therefore, individual inventors and small experimental firms are often forced to sell patents to those firms that are able to commercialize the invention. When a patent is sold, title to a commercial invention passes to the buyer, most often large companies.
Patents registered in one country may be valid in other countries if that country is a member of a reciprocal agreement (for example, EU member states).
Globally, patent applications are reviewed by the World Intellectual Property Organization under the Patent Cooperation Treaty, which allows inventors to file a one-time application for registration in member countries of the treaty.
The need for the rapid dissemination of new technologies creates the need for repeated use of the invention during the life of the patent, both by the owner of the technology and by other firms. In this regard, licenses emerged as forms of legal protection of new technologies.
License is the permission of the licensor, i.e. the owner of the technology or industrial property rights, whether protected by a patent or not, which is issued to the licensee, i.e. interested party acquiring technology or corresponding rights to use technologically applicable knowledge in production for a certain period and for a specified fee. Such permission allows the licensee to organize production using inventions, technical knowledge and production experience, production secrets, commercial and other information that are the subject of the issued license.
Consequently, along with patent licenses (patent license), there are non-patent licenses, i.e. licenses for the right to use scientific and technical achievements and technologies that are either non-patentable or not patented for any reason. Patentless licenses, as a rule, act in the form of know-how (know-howlicense). At the same time, free licenses in the quantitative aspect prevail over patent ones.
Know-how usually includes technical experience and production secrets, information that has commercial value. Know-how can be represented by software and mathematics, mathematical formulas and algorithms, production techniques and skills, diagrams, drawings, descriptions, etc. an item of know-how, when used in production, creates certain advantages, although it is not provided with patent protection. In practice, a patent license is often sold and at the same time the transfer of know-how and the provision of technical assistance in setting up production.
Copyright in the global technology market, along with patents and licenses, is protected by copyright, which literally means the right to reproduce. Copyright protects from copying mainly works of art and literature - books, films, radio broadcasts, etc. however, it often extends to knowledge used in production in the form of sketches, layouts, drawings, drawings, etc.
And finally, a tool for the legal protection of technologies is a trademark (trademark), usually placed on a company’s products in the form of a drawing, the initials of the founder (owner) of the company, an abbreviation, a graphic image, etc. a trademark is registered both at the location of the company and abroad, and it is prohibited for other companies to use it without official permission.
As already noted, technology as a factor of production is characterized by a high degree of international mobility. Experience shows that the costs of technology transfer within national economies are noticeably lower than when technology is transferred to foreign firms. In this regard, one would expect that the sale of technologies on the domestic national market will exceed their sales on the world market. However, in practice, exactly the opposite processes are observed.
In most developed countries, large companies are more willing to sell technologically applicable knowledge to foreign firms than to domestic ones, and foreign technology markets are significantly larger than domestic ones. The reasons for this phenomenon are quite diverse.
Firstly, there are fewer barriers and restrictions on the international movement of technology compared to the movement of goods and capital. Therefore, external expansion is easier to achieve by selling a license abroad than to achieve development of a new market by exporting products produced using new technology or with the help of foreign investment. In other words, the transfer of new technology abroad acts as a form of struggle for foreign commodity markets, allowing one to bypass customs and other barriers.
Secondly, multinational companies prefer to sell new technologies to their foreign branches or subsidiaries rather than to independent firms, even domestic ones. This is explained by the fact that in such sales a multinational company does not lose its monopoly right to use new technologies, and the possibility of leakage of production secrets and the buyer becoming a serious competitor is excluded.
Thirdly, the sale of technologies abroad is often accompanied by additional supplies of raw materials, equipment, semi-finished products, etc. Consequently, the technology seller has the opportunity to increase production for export. The benefit derived by the company selling new technologies is called the escort effect.
Fourthly, often only by selling new technology abroad can a company gain access to the innovation it needs, which is available to a foreign partner. Such counter or cross licensing is typical for companies that carry out large-scale research and development work and are leaders in the development of some direction in the development of science and technology. Typically, such firms operate in industries with frequently changing technology and producing many types of products (for example, the chemical and electrical industries).
These are the most important reasons why the owner of new technologies seeks to implement them not on the domestic, but on the foreign market.
The interest of the seller coincides with the interest of the buyer, since in the international technology market the total supply of new technologies collides with the total demand for them. The motives that encourage buyers to purchase new technologies on the global market are also diverse.
First, by importing new technologies, the buyer usually achieves significant cost and time savings compared to independent development in this area. Large-scale research and development work requires significant financial expenditures, they take a long time, and their expected results are not always certain. Therefore, it is often easier to buy than to make it yourself.
Secondly, by acquiring new technologies, the buyer gets the opportunity to quickly eliminate his technical gap in a particular area. And although not everything that is sold on the technology market is the latest scientific and technical achievements, nevertheless, purchases on the technology market provide access to innovations of a high technical level.
Thirdly, the acquisition of imported technologies is usually accompanied by relatively low costs for mastering the production of products. This is explained by the fact that practically proven technologies are usually put on sale. In addition, the buyer can count on the help of the licensor in mastering new technological processes.
Fourthly, practice shows that products produced using foreign technology are highly competitive. Therefore, part of the production of new products is sent to the foreign market, increasing the export capabilities of the buyer of the new technology.
Economic agents in the global technology market, as a rule, are developed countries. They account for the predominant part of the turnover of the global technology market. The world leader in this market is the USA. They annually export high-tech products worth about $700 billion. The USA is followed by Germany ($530 billion) and Japan ($400 billion).
2. Main forms of international technology transfer
2.1 Licensed trade
The main form of international technology transfer is licensed trade, which is carried out on the basis of licensing agreements. The term “license” translated from Latin means permission to perform any action. In relation to technological exchange, it means permission to use licensed items under certain conditions, which are:
– patented inventions,
– industrial designs,
- trademarks,
– know-how, i.e. valuable confidential information that does not enjoy legal protection.
An invention is a technical solution that is novel. A technical solution is broadly understood as a practical means of satisfying a specific need.
A technical solution does not necessarily have to be accompanied by a theoretical justification. It is considered new provided that its essence has not been previously disclosed in a given country or abroad to the extent that its implementation became possible. Disclosure of the solution may occur through either publication, demonstration, or open application. In all these cases, it becomes possible to copy the solution, which entails the loss of its novelty.
A technical solution is recognized as having significant differences if it is characterized by a new set of features that give a positive effect, for example:
a) all signs are new;
b) some of the features are new, and some are known;
c) all the features are known, but their combination is new.
Similar homogeneous inventions are called analogues, and the closest of them to the proposed new technical solution is called a prototype. Minor differences in a new technical solution do not allow it to be considered an invention, for example, the use of equivalent means.
An industrial design is recognized as a new artistic and design solution for a product that defines it appearance. With the help of an industrial design, a monopoly on the form (ornament) of the products of labor is established. Patents are issued for industrial designs, as well as for inventions.
A trademark is a designation registered in the prescribed manner that serves to distinguish the goods of some enterprises from similar goods of other enterprises. Trademarks usually have a letter or graphic image. Service marks are used to identify services.
Patents for inventions and industrial designs, certificates confirming the registration of trademarks and service marks, protected by the Paris Convention of 1883, are considered industrial property.
Copyright applies to any creative works regardless of the form, purpose and merits of the work (lectures, reports, articles, brochures, books, technical descriptions, operating instructions, illustrations of any kind, drawings, posters, photographs, etc.). This right means that without the consent of the author or his successors, no one can reproduce in any form or in any other way use objects protected by law. Copyright is protected by national laws and internationally by the Berne Convention of 1886 and the Universal Convention of 1952.
Along with patent licenses, there are also non-patent licenses for know-how (non-patented scientific and technical achievements and production experience of a confidential nature), the owner of which has a natural monopoly, unlike the owner of a patented invention. This term was first used in the USA.
Unlike a patented invention, know-how does not enjoy special legal protection, therefore the best form of protection for such knowledge is a trade secret. Know-how may include:
– items – product samples, unpatented industrial designs, machines, instruments, spare parts, tools, devices, etc.;
– technical documentation – formulas, calculations, drawings, diagrams, unpatented inventions, etc.;
– instructions – explanations regarding the design of production or use of a product, the production process, production skills, practical advice; information about the organization of work and data that helps in solving economic issues.
In international practice, the most common patent licenses are the simultaneous transfer of know-how and the provision of technical assistance in setting up production. The second place is occupied by licenses for know-how, and only the third place is occupied by purely patent licenses that do not provide for the transfer of know-how. This is explained, in particular, by the fact that at the current level of technological development, the development of most inventions without the provision of know-how, i.e., experience and knowledge available to the selling company, is either completely impossible or leads to unproductive expenditure of time and money . Therefore, know-how is the main object not only of licenses, but also of other forms of technology transfer.
When concluding agreements on know-how, patent protection does not apply, therefore, in this type of licensing agreements, conditions on non-disclosure of know-how both during the validity period of the license agreement and after its expiration are of particular importance. In this regard, the agreement sometimes stipulates the procedure for familiarizing the licensee's employees with the know-how.
The most typical terms of licensing agreements that limit the licensee’s use of know-how are:
– do not transfer acquired knowledge and experience to a third party during the term of the agreement and on average up to 5 years after the end of this period;
– do not provide sublicenses for know-how, as this may entail its loss.
In addition to patent and non-patent licenses, there are independent (“pure”) and accompanying licenses. Self-licensing involves the transfer of technology or technical developments, regardless of their material carrier. The accompanying licenses are independent in nature and are provided simultaneously with the conclusion of a contract for the construction of an enterprise, the supply of technological equipment, and the provision of consulting services.
The sale of licenses allows you to significantly speed up the process of developing a new market and at least partially reimburse your own research and development costs. Sometimes it is more profitable, instead of supplying finished products, to sell a license for the right to produce them, for example, in cases where problems arise related to the sale of finished products due to insufficient volume of domestic production or entering the foreign market. The development of your own production can be hampered by many reasons - from a lack of raw materials to the lack of highly qualified personnel and production space.
An obstacle to the export of products is often the protectionist policy of the government of the country to which they are expected to be supplied: high customs duties, import quotas, encouraging the import of disassembled products (in order to develop national industry).
In all these cases, selling licenses is one of the ways to enter the local market, as well as creating a branch of an exporting company in a given country. It should be noted that when selling a license, the supply of materials, components and parts for the production of products is usually provided. Thus, licensed trade turns out to be an effective incentive for selling their own products.
Depending on the scope of rights granted by the license agreement to the buyer and seller, simple, exclusive and full licenses are distinguished. A simple license reserves the right for the seller to grant similar licenses to a third party. An exclusive license gives the buyer a monopoly right to use this technology, and the seller can neither independently use the patented technology nor transfer it to third parties in the given territory. In the case of a full license, the seller is completely deprived of the right to use the licensed object.
Since the main flow of new technologies flows from developed countries to developing countries, the governments of the latter sometimes intervene in the pricing process by limiting the upper limit of the price under the licensing agreement.
Many technologies are sold by the licensor to controlled entities - foreign branches of multinational companies or their subsidiaries. The latter, acting as a legally independent entity, ensures protection of intellectual property when ownership becomes shared, and also allows one to avoid restrictions on the size of payments or currency.
However, even in this case, the problem of pricing is complex and controversial. On the one hand, multinational companies are criticized for declaring their profits in countries with low tax rates through such sales. On the other hand, developing countries themselves, where tax levels are low, often argue the exact opposite: in their view, multinational firms artificially reduce their profits in order, for example, to move their funds to countries with more reliable currencies. Therefore, government control over pricing when selling technical innovations of multinational companies to their controlled affiliates is strengthening both in the home country and in the host country.
The remuneration to the licensor, paid by the licensee for the use of new technology, can be carried out in different ways. Most often, it is paid in the form of royalties, i.e. periodic payments (usually quarterly or annual installments) set as a percentage of the actual profit or sales volume from the commercial use of the license. Payment documents are accompanied by consistent accounting data.
The use of royalties presupposes close cooperation between the licensor and the licensee, creating a mutual interest in the effective use of the licensed object. However, the amount of royalty payments may fluctuate, sometimes quite significantly.
Unlike royalties, a lump sum payment is a lump sum payment, the amount of which is firmly fixed in the contract. Sometimes lump sum payments are made by breaking them down into several payments in accordance with the stages of practical implementation of the license - after signing the license agreement, completing the supply of equipment, providing know-how, etc. but in any case, lump sum payments are set in advance based on expert assessments of the possible economic effect and expected profit.
Partners are driven to this form of payment by various factors: uncertainty about the possibility of making periodic transfers abroad, the desire to avoid the seller’s control over the subsequent use of the technology, poor knowledge of the partner’s state of affairs, the connection of the technology with a specific set of equipment, etc. Moreover, as practice shows, the amount of the lump sum payment turns out to be less than the amount of remuneration if the latter were carried out under the terms of a royalty.
Along with the above types of payments under a license agreement, it is sometimes practiced to receive remuneration in the form of participation in profits or participation in property. In the first case, the seller receives a certain percentage of the profit from the commercial application of the technology; in the second, the seller receives compensation in the form of a portion of the shares of the company using the new technology.
2.2 Franchising
The next form of international technology transfer is franchising, which is a contract for the transfer of a trademark. The seller not only transfers the right to use the trademark to the buyer, but also provides him with ongoing assistance in doing business. This assistance is expressed in the provision of technical services, training and advanced training, enterprise management for a fee, etc.
Essentially, the seller and buyer in this case act as a vertically integrated company, whose branches are interconnected and produce part of the goods and services for the consumer. This is especially typical for complex franchising, which provides for the full provision of the dealer, including marketing, management of the operation of the enterprise, standards and product quality control.
The history of franchising dates back to the 19th century. and is linked to the US, where about a third of retail turnover is franchising. Along with American companies, foreign companies are involved in franchising. Their field of activity is the restaurant business, food products, car sales, gas stations, bottling without alcoholic drinks etc.
Franchising is rapidly spreading throughout the world. The following method of penetration of a franchisor into another country is widely used: a local company is selected as the main franchise, to which the rights to use the trademark are transferred.
In some cases, several retail outlets are opened abroad that perform advertising functions, attracting local potential buyers. An example is the McDonald's company, which operates in 109 countries and opened 2,110 new restaurants in 1997 alone. The company's net income in 1997 increased by 8% and reached $1,642.5 million, and international sales amounted to $33,658.3 million.
2.3 Engineering
An important form of international technology transfer is engineering, which covers a wide range of technical activities aimed at increasing the efficiency of foreign investments and minimizing the costs of implementing projects for various purposes. It includes a variety of services that the buyer needs when purchasing, installing, mastering and operating new equipment.
Within the framework of engineering, services can be provided, primarily for the preparation of new production. These include the preparation of a feasibility study for the project, the development of master plans and drawings, construction management and supervision, and acceptance work. After the completion of the construction of a new facility and its commissioning, engineering comes down to the provision of services for organizing the production process and enterprise management. Sometimes it extends to the sales of manufactured products. Forms of payment for engineering services can be different. This could be time-based wages for consulting engineers, reimbursement of actual costs incurred plus a known remuneration, payment as a percentage of the cost of construction of the facility.
2.4 Consulting
Consulting has also become widespread in the MRIT field. Consulting refers to a wide range of consulting services provided by a consulting firm to any consumer.
2.5 Turnkey contracts
Turnkey contracts (turnkey projects) as a form of international technology transfer involve the conclusion of an agreement for the construction of a facility, which, after it is fully ready for operation, is transferred to the customer. Such projects are usually implemented by large construction companies and industrial equipment manufacturers, between which the corresponding markets are divided.
With this form of international technology transfer, the customer receives a facility that is completely ready for operation, without experiencing difficulties in mastering new technology. All responsibility for the construction and commissioning of the facility is assigned to one legal entity. Therefore, such facilities are built very quickly and begin producing competitive products in a short time.
Almost the only problem for the customer is the high price. The cost of implementing turnkey projects is usually significantly higher compared to the construction of a similar facility on our own. As for the contractor, the implementation of such projects is also beneficial for them, as evidenced by the competitive struggle that accompanies the receipt of orders of this kind. If the contracting firm does not have a monopoly in a given area of technologically applicable knowledge, and the production process is known to other firms, then the number of competitors seeking a contract can be quite significant.
Only large companies from developed countries act as contractors. In recent years, firms from Turkey, India, and South Korea have been very active in implementing a number of projects. They are quite competitive in comparison with firms from developed countries in the implementation of construction projects that require the use of cheap labor.
2.6 Management contracts
Management contracts are a specific form of international technology transfer, the essence of which is that a company in one country sends its managers to a foreign company to perform management functions for a certain period of time and for a certain fee.
The need for management contracts arises from a number of situations in international business. First of all, it arises in the case when there is an urgent need to achieve a significant increase in the operating efficiency of an existing enterprise, and local managers are not able to cope with this task. Foreign managers and specialists, as experience shows, are able to quickly and effectively provide the necessary assistance and achieve the desired result.
Further, management contracts are sometimes associated with foreign direct investment. When a new industrial facility is created abroad or an existing enterprise is reconstructed, the supplier of new technological equipment is required to provide assistance in the form of management services.
Finally, management contracts are sometimes awarded when foreign investment is nationalized and the former owner is asked to continue running the business as long as local staff are able to handle the job.
Management contracts typically last between 3 and 5 years, and foreign managers are paid either a fixed amount or based on production volume.
2.7 International technical assistance
A specific type of international technology transfer is international technical assistance (technical assistance), programs for the provision of which have been quite widely implemented by the world community since the late 1970s.
These programs, implemented on a bilateral or multilateral basis, are designed to provide technical assistance to developing countries and countries with economies in transition in the areas of processes, products and management. Technical assistance programs are developed and implemented by the UN, IMF, World Bank, OECD and other international organizations.
Technical assistance is defined as the transfer of know-how through activities such as training, policy implementation, consultation, partnerships and research. It is provided in the form of free technology grants and joint financing projects for technology development.
If we apply the World Bank criteria to assess the effectiveness of technical assistance, then it should contribute to an influx of investment in an amount 10 times greater than the volume of technical assistance provided.
Through all the types of activities discussed (licensing agreements, franchising, engineering, turnkey contracts, etc.), firms in one country gain access to technology and management created in other countries. Therefore, international technology transfer helps improve the competitiveness of firms in domestic and global markets. The more perfect the market mechanism for technology transfer, the more efficient the distribution of this factor of production in society and the greater the benefits for both the seller and the buyer of technologically applicable knowledge.
3. State regulation of the property market
intellectual property
In the modern development strategy of states, a key role is given to the creation and management of intellectual property (IP). The importance of IP becomes even more apparent when examining all aspects associated with its commercialization. And the point here is not only in the growth factor of trade in licenses (which exceeds several times the annual growth of international trade in general), but also in the opportunities arising from international regulations that allow entities with significant scientific and technical potential to ensure effective protection of rights on objects of intellectual industrial property, increase the competitiveness of their products.
Intellectual property objects in world practice include:
– know-how, patents, design and other documentation;
– technology, technological complex or its individual components;
– components and assemblies, finished products (based on the results of pilot production);
– technical and technological documentation for the creation of technical objects and the production of industrial products;
It is known that the competitiveness of a product on the market is largely determined by its qualitative components, the key of which are the patent and legal characteristics of a particular product. Therefore, most subjects of the world economy consider patent and licensing policy as an extremely important factor in ensuring economic growth. It should be emphasized that the development strategy of all successful companies involves their active position in IP management both in their own country and abroad.
In the competition between states, corporations, and enterprises, the leaders today are no longer those who managed to successfully implement individual innovations, but those who were able to develop and implement appropriate policies in the field of IP management and obtain maximum profits based on patent protection and monopoly development of high-tech products. . Based on the importance of IP and its management in ensuring the competitiveness of products, industrial countries today provide not only state support for the research sector of the economy, but also use the entire range of incentives for the creation and use of industrial property objects in production and trading activities.
An analysis of relevant experience allows us to assess the state of affairs in the field of IP creation, management, as well as in the field of patent and licensing regulation. foreign countries, its comparison with existing national practice.
International statistics show that in most countries of the world the number of registered patents used by non-residents significantly exceeds the number of patents used by residents. Only in Japan, South Korea and the USA is this ratio in favor of residents, which, in particular, explains the sustainability of economic growth in these countries (Table 1).
The second conclusion that can be drawn based on the analysis of international statistics is that the higher the level of economic development of a country, the higher the total number of patents used in sectors of the national economy. In Australia this figure exceeds 43 thousand, for European countries - more than 60 thousand, in South Korea - 114 thousand, in the USA - more than 220 thousand and in Japan - more than 400 thousand.
The patent and licensing policy of Japan, which ranks first in the world in terms of the number of patents used, deserves special attention. The success of its economic development, the export opportunities of the automotive industry, and the electronics industry are predetermined, on the one hand, by measures aimed at limiting the activities of international corporations in the Japanese market. This made it possible to avoid the diversion of national resources for their maintenance and to ensure the concentration of internal resources on priority production. On the other hand, the effectiveness of the policy for purchasing licenses and stimulating invention. Thus, over the course of thirty years, starting in 1950, Japan entered into more than 32 thousand licensing agreements for the purchase of technologies, spending about 9 billion dollars on this, despite the fact that most of the licenses acquired by Japan from the United States provided for a ban on the export of products produced with their using products in North America, this allowed us to avoid more significant costs for the development of corresponding in-house technologies.
Table 1 – Number of patents used in leading countries in
A country | Residents | Non-residents | Total |
Japan | 340861 | 60390 | 401251 |
USA | 111883 | 111536 | 223419 |
Germany | 56757 | 98338 | 155095 |
Great Britain | 25269 | 104084 | 129353 |
South Korea | 68446 | 45548 | 113994 |
France | 17090 | 81418 | 98508 |
Spain | 2689 | 81294 | 83983 |
Sweden | 7077 | 76364 | 83441 |
Italy | 8860 | 71992 | 80852 |
Austria | 2506 | 75985 | 78491 |
Denmark | 2452 | 72151 | 74603 |
For reference: Belarus | 701 | 20347 | 21048 |
The Japanese IP rights protection system has a number of features. Thus, the highest cost of patenting in the world (for example, consideration of an application for an invention, issuance of a safe conduct and maintaining a patent in force throughout its entire validity period is 70 - 80 thousand US dollars), as well as the time required to register a patent , contribute to the exercise by Japanese entities of control over the domestic market. A consequence of Japan's industrial property policy is that foreign applicants account for only about 4% of the total number of patents issued in Japan.
The relevant entity in Japan pursues an active policy in compulsory licensing, that is, it assists local companies in acquiring patented developments of other, including foreign, companies, and also assists entities in developing a foreign patenting strategy. Its basic principles are determined by the possibilities of patenting and are based on the fact that patenting, while providing legal protection for a particular object, allows the patent holder to monopolize the rights to industrial property and, as a result, dictate prices and influence the state of a particular market. Those. the presence of a patent must also be considered as a barrier to entry into the product market, which can restrain the introduction of innovation, contribute to the monopoly position of a product in a specific territory, and protect against uncontrolled competition. The foreign patenting strategy is aimed at preventing an “attack” by foreign companies when Japanese firms enter foreign markets. All this is done on the basis of an appropriate patent and licensing policy, ensuring legal protection of available inventions, utility models, industrial designs, and trademarks. Japan accounts for the largest share of US patents in areas such as Computer Engineering, communications, microelectronics, automotive industry, which, given other factors, ensures a positive balance of foreign trade. Along with this, the activity of Japanese firms in foreign patenting is an integral part of the ongoing public policy to focus on increasing the export of licenses, reflecting the ongoing trend towards IP becoming an integral part of international trade.
In 1998, R&D expenditures in the United States amounted to about $150 billion, with almost half of this amount coming from budgetary funds. At the same time, trade in intellectual property is a priority part of US foreign trade, and revenues to the American treasury from the export of patents and licenses are commensurate with the share of the textile or tobacco industries in GNP. In foreign trade transactions with IP in the United States, intra-corporate trade predominates - 80% of exports and 74% of imports, which reflects the desire of companies to maintain and, if possible, expand their sales markets based on the ownership and management of IP. It should be borne in mind that average age technologies of American companies on the date of their first transfer to a branch in a developed country is about 6 years, in a developing country - about 10 years, when licensed to third-party companies and joint ventures - more than 13 years.
The special power of patents is manifested in the activities of large firms, when the mutual use of patents and licenses becomes the basis for the creation of many international alliances, alliances, and corporations. As a result, transnational corporations account for the bulk of intellectual industrial property and transactions with them. Thus, in recent years, investments by a number of companies in scientific research and development have reached amounts comparable to the gross domestic product of individual states. For example, the costs of General Motors for these purposes are about 7 billion dollars, Ford Motor - 5.2 billion, IBM - 3.4 billion dollars.
Practice shows that inventions created in the process of research and design work are patented, first of all, in the countries of the intended export channel, sales of products in which IP objects are used in one form or another, as well as in countries where the level of technological development of the relevant industry the highest. This not only ensures a stable position of goods in sales markets, but also makes it possible to influence leading enterprises that produce products competitive in world markets.
The United States has a verified mechanism for selling high-tech products abroad, according to which this becomes possible only after a comprehensive study of all aspects of the proposed transaction, ensuring patenting, and protecting the IP used in the exported product in the importing country.
In order to ensure the effectiveness of its investments in fundamental and applied research and the protection of the IP created as a result of it, the United States applies trade and economic leverage to its partners - increasing import duties, reducing quotas, creating non-tariff barriers to trade, and curtailing cooperation and assistance programs.
This applies to countries that violate the rights of American subjects to said property. An analysis of the patent and licensing policies of a number of leading countries allows us to talk about the multifaceted use of a patent as an effective tool of competition. Moreover, its role in a particular market is largely determined by the purpose of patenting. In one case, a patent ensures the presence of a certain product on the market, in the other - the protection of its monopoly position. The presence of a block of patents in one company in a certain direction of a particular state becomes a ban for other enterprises to produce and sell goods in the territory of a given country using an already patented object of industrial property. Such a prohibition can only be eliminated by acquiring the appropriate license, which for a number of reasons is not always possible, since a monopoly position on the market for a particular product guarantees excess profits from its sale.
The relevant policy pursued in the European Union is largely aimed at creating joint developments and a single European market. This is largely ensured by the costs of European industry for patenting, which, for example, in 1994 amounted to about 5 billion German marks.
Germany's third place in the world market of science-intensive products is largely explained by the verified innovation policy of the government of this country, the increase in funds for the needs of the research sector and the protection of industrial property. A consequence of this approach is the fact that in 1997 alone, firms sold the following number of patent applications with effect in Germany: Siemens - 2573, Bosch - 1508, BASF - 1263, Bayer - 952.
In the production and export of equipment designed to protect the environment, Germany is the world leader: as of 1992, German firms accounted for 28% of the world's patent stock in this area.
Based on the key role of IP in ensuring the competitiveness of national industry in the world market, the most developed countries, along with government funding of research and development work, actively stimulate the creation and use of industrial property in production and trade. An analysis of existing practice in the field of patent and licensing regulation suggests that this tool for ensuring the quality and competitiveness of products is actively used by leading developed countries to conquer markets and protect them from competition from other entities.
Ultimately, the possibilities of regulation, ensuring competitiveness based on IP management, on the one hand, as well as the potential available to transnational corporations in this area, on the other hand, predetermined the adoption by the most developed countries of one of the fundamental documents of the WTO - the Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights property (TRIPS).
The experience accumulated by developed countries and transnational corporations in creating competitive advantages for their subjects on the basis of patent and licensing regulation allows us to assume the following. Enterprises of those countries that, due to limited necessary resources, lag behind in the field of creation and development of new technologies and do not have significant experience in involving IP objects in economic circulation, when bringing (without appropriate reservations) national legislation into compliance with the provisions of this Agreement, will all be in to be increasingly pushed to the periphery of global economic development. Such consequences can only be avoided if there is proper government policy in this area.
In Belarus for 1993–1997. The patent office received 3,585 applications for inventions from national applicants, and 2,857 from foreign applicants. During this period, 1,362 and 805 patents for inventions were registered and issued to these entities, respectively.
Of the foreign applicants, the subjects of Germany (845), the USA (471), and Switzerland (187) are the most active in filing applications for protection certificates of the Republic of Belarus for inventions, which largely reflects their desire to ensure the protection of the components of products supplied to the Belarusian market, to prevent, in conditions of fierce competition and due to the patenting of its components by competitors, significant economic costs and loss of one or another benefit. An analysis of the industry focus of submitted applications indicates that foreign applicants mainly patent inventions in the field of chemistry. Thus, at the end of 1997, 58% of all registered, according to the International Patent Classification, patents in the field of chemistry were owned by foreign applicants. And if in the field of biochemistry, genetic engineering, production of alcoholic beverages, and iron metallurgy, the ratio of patents issued to foreign and domestic entities was approximately equal, then in the field of organic chemistry, about 90% of patents were granted to foreign entities.
Such information should be taken into account when determining priority areas of scientific, technical, industrial and foreign economic development. Because Western companies have the opportunity to use patents of the Republic of Belarus as a tool for blocking the development of a particular production or market sector, preventing entry into it or ousting possible competitors from it.
In contrast to world practice, one third of the patents issued to subjects of the Republic of Belarus over a five-year period belonged to individuals. The consequences of this situation can be easily predicted. Indeed, in this case, the patent holder is unlikely to have enough financial, organizational, managerial, and other resources for the proper use of IP; moreover, there is a weakness in the relevant mechanisms and institutions that facilitate its effective use.
An analysis of licensing agreements for inventions, know-how and agreements on the transfer of rights to a patent for an invention registered in the republic during the period under review shows that the main sellers are private legal entities and individuals (55%). At the same time, the share of individuals among licensors was 28%, and among licensees – 6%. Among the registered agreements for agreements under which the licensor is a foreign entity and the licensee is a representative of the Republic of Belarus, the number is negligible. This situation is a consequence of both the insufficient capabilities of Belarusian enterprises, which, by the way, is reflected in the protection of domestic IP objects abroad, and the patent and licensing policies of foreign states and foreign companies. The latter effectively use this regulatory instrument, primarily with the aim of ensuring entry into a particular market and implementing an appropriate competition policy on it.
The state of licensed trade in the republic shows that when it is carried out by national entities, not all possibilities of patent and licensing regulation are used and taken into account. At the same time, based on the limited domestic market and the need to strengthen cooperation ties with Russian enterprises, the most alarming is the lack of activity on the part of the constituent entities of Belarus in “linking”, on the basis of patent and licensing regulation, enterprises of the two countries into a single technological complex.
An integral part of the state regulation system is the country's participation in the work of international organizations dealing with problems of regulating the global market for intellectual property. The Republic of Belarus has been participating in the activities of WIPO since the ratification by the former USSR of the Convention establishing WIPO in 1968 (Decree of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR dated September 19, 1968). Currently, cooperation is expressed in improving the legislation of the republic in the field of industrial property and copyright and related rights in accordance with WIPO recommendations and agreements developed within the organizations.
Improving invention law includes two areas:
1) accession of the Republic of Belarus to international conventions in force in this area;
2) development and adoption of domestic laws and regulations aimed at implementing the general principles contained in international conventions.
Resolution of the Council of Ministers of the Republic of Belarus No. 141 of March 11, 1993 approved the Declaration on International Treaties of the Republic of Belarus in the field of industrial property. This declaration formalized the legal succession of the republic in relation to the three most important multilateral agreements in this area, to which the former USSR was a party: the Paris Convention for the Protection of Industrial Property, the Patent Cooperation Treaty and the Madrid Agreement Concerning the International Registration of Marks.
In the field of copyright and related rights, Belarus has acceded to the Berne Convention of 1886, the Universal Copyright Convention of 1952, the WIPO Copyright Treaty of 1996, the WIPO Performances and Phonograms Treaty of 1996 and some other documents.
Based on this, the Republic of Belarus currently participates in the unions of the WIPO system (Paris, Madrid, Berne, etc.).
Cooperation of the Republic of Belarus with WIPO consists in improving national legislation according to the standards developed by this organization. The main direction of cooperation in the future should be the creation of organizational and institutional prerequisites for the implementation of this legislation, so that Belarusian business entities and citizens of the republic have the opportunity to effectively exercise their intellectual property rights, and also have effective means of protecting such rights, including at the international level. In this regard, we will give some examples.
A significant issue when an enterprise enters a foreign market is the foreign registration of its trademark, which identifies the goods of this enterprise and is a means of promoting sales. However, registering trademarks with the national registration authorities of foreign countries is associated with high costs and some technical difficulties. Therefore, it is much more advisable to take advantage of the opportunities provided by the Madrid Agreement Concerning the International Registration of Marks and contact the International Bureau of WIPO in order to obtain an international certificate of registration valid in all countries party to the Madrid Agreement. This practice is not yet widespread among Belarusian enterprises, which is explained by the underdevelopment of national exports. In the future, Belarusian exporters should use this opportunity.
A similar example can be given in connection with the registration of inventions. A Belarusian enterprise or an individual inventor who wants to patent his invention in several foreign countries (for example, for the purpose of further selling the license abroad) may not submit applications directly to the national patent offices of these states, but use the services of WIPO on the basis of the Patent Cooperation Treaty. In this case, the application is submitted to the International Bureau of WIPO. Although the agreement does not provide for the issuance of a single international patent (the applicant will receive several independent national patents as a result), and the fee for international search and preliminary examination of the application is proportional to the number of national patents received, the costs of such registration will be lower, and the registration itself will be completed faster .
In the event of disputes between Belarusian citizens or business entities, on the one hand, and their foreign counterparties, on the other, regarding the use of their intellectual property rights, the parties can apply for resolution to the WIPO Arbitration Center (operating since 1994). this gives the parties all the advantages of arbitration proceedings over state legal proceedings - speed of proceedings, lower costs, less formality of the process, confidentiality, and the opportunity to resolve the dispute to the mutual satisfaction of both parties.
The presence of great scientific and technical potential and a focus on the development of knowledge-intensive industries gives grounds to conclude that cooperation with WIPO in the future will become an important element of the republic’s international relations.
Thus, strategic planning and successful competition policy of the state cannot be carried out without taking into account all aspects of the creation, protection and management of intellectual property. Solving problems in this area seems to be successful only if a verified patent and licensing policy is implemented, primarily in the most promising, priority areas. It is in these areas that all internal resources should be concentrated, appropriate conditions, mechanisms and infrastructure created for the development of technical creativity, innovation, and effective regulation of relations in the field of intellectual property.
Conclusion
At the turn of the 20th and 21st centuries. The world community has come to understand the need to unite the efforts of various countries in order to use the best scientific achievements in the interests of humanity, including to prevent global threats arising in the process of development of science and technology, to determine the priorities of scientific research and mechanisms for their implementation.
The objective process of internationalization of the modern economy determines the intensification of international scientific and industrial cooperation. At the same time, the phenomena occurring in this area are heterogeneous; they are characterized by certain contradictions that require organizational, legal and economic regulation at the interstate level. On the one hand, international cooperation is rapidly expanding in the field of fundamental sciences, on the other hand, applied developments are becoming increasingly closed, their results are considered as a national treasure of strategic importance for ensuring the economic security of an individual state or group of countries.
Considering the significant role of science in solving the socio-economic problems of the century, an increasing number of countries around the world (Japan, the Republic of Korea, China, India, etc.) are using a plan-oriented model for the formation of scientific policy and the development of scientific and technical potential. The governments of these countries use both directive centralized and indicative planning methods. Directive planning is used to compensate for the shortcomings of the market system for financing large-scale R&D with high degree risk, the formation of new industries and technological modernization of traditional basic industries. This is carried out primarily through direct government appropriations, the state market in the form of guaranteed government purchases of new high-tech products, as well as tax and customs benefits.
International scientific and technical cooperation (ISTC) is one of the important elements of the country's scientific and technical policy, the preservation and expansion of Russian scientific and technical potential (STP). In our country, it has always been assumed that ISTS is of an auxiliary nature, promoting the development of domestic science and technology and, in turn, depends on the state of scientific and technical progress.
Happened in the 90s. XX century fundamental changes in political and military-strategic realities in modern world, socio-political and economic transformations in Russia, the CIS member states and other countries of the former socialist camp have significantly influenced the development of processes of international scientific and technical cooperation. These factors cannot but be taken into account when forming the strategy and tactics of the ISTS. Russia is faced with the task of being fully present in the global scientific and technological community, relying on the still preserved domestic scientific and technical potential and using the extensive scientific and technical ties formed during the Soviet period with various regions of the world, both at the state level and directly at the level of scientists and specialists .
So, as a result of the work done, the main conclusions can be drawn:
The global market for information and technology is a complex system for exchanging the results of intellectual activity in tangible and intangible forms;
In the process of innovation, scientific and technical developments that have found their buyer are transferred from one country to another through various channels and forms of commercial and non-commercial exchange;
The leading place among forms of exchange is occupied by the acquisition of patents and licenses, and recently engineering, franchising and consulting have appeared at MRIT.
List of sources used
1. Dadalko V.A. World Economy: Textbook. allowance. – Mn.: “Urajay”, “Interpressservice”, 2001. – 529 p.
2. Teor T.R. World economy. – St. Petersburg: Peter, 2002. – 192 p.: ill. – (Series “Short Course”).
3. Chebotarev N.F. World Economy: Textbook. – M.: Publishing and trading corporation “Dashkov and K.” – 2007. – 332 p.
Introduction
Concept and current trends in international technology exchange
Russia's participation in international technology exchange
Conclusion
Introduction
In the last century, the world experienced a scientific, technological and information revolution, which significantly changed the conditions and nature of economic development of various parts of the planet and the structure of international exchange. In the most developed countries, a post-industrial “new economy” is emerging - a technological and economic structure in which knowledge and information play the role of the main production resource. The emergence of this structure largely determines the general situation in the world economy and the place of countries in the international division of labor.
Conquering markets and maintaining positions in them now increasingly depends on the ability of countries (their economic agents) to withstand dynamic technological and organizational competition, which is based on innovation.
The formation and development of the “new economy” entailed an accelerated growth in the international exchange of technically complex products and a change in the nature of competition in world markets.
Trends in the development of the world economy indicate that possession of advanced technologies and the scientific component of the economy are a necessary condition for social and economic progress. They determine what place a country occupies in the hierarchy of countries in the world. In this regard, today in Russia the issue of developing and implementing an innovative policy for the development of the domestic economy comes to the fore, in the context of which the need for economic integration of our country into the system of international technological exchange on a mutually beneficial and equal basis becomes obvious.
This determines the relevance of writing and our abstract work devoted to theoretical issues of studying the system of international technology exchange and Russia’s participation in it.
1. Concept and current trends in international technology exchange
The dominant role in the economy is closely related to globalization, which accelerates the international exchange of technology, on the one hand, and intensifies competition in the world market, on the other hand, gradually moving it from the sphere of material goods and services to the world of knowledge, ideas and information. In this situation, the nature of industrial policy is changing and the role of industrial policy is increasing, which, being the main component of the state’s economic policy, is increasingly subordinate to the task of developing a clear innovation strategy aimed at the development of progressive technological structures, the use of the entire arsenal of direct and indirect stimulation tools in the interests of public-private partnership innovation process, as well as the formation of an effective infrastructure using the latest communication and information technologies.
Considering theoretical approaches to the innovation process and technology exchange, it can be noted that at the end of the last century, economic science paid close attention to scientific and technological progress as a factor of economic growth. In this regard, the formation and development of theoretical views on innovation as a mechanism of organic connection and interpenetration of scientific, technical and economic spheres took place. Of the numerous definitions of “technology,” the following can be generalized: it is a set of systematized scientific and technical (otherwise) technological knowledge about the methods of organizing and functioning of a specific production process, sales process or consumption.
Technology exchange is a specific form of international economic relations, which is a set of relations regarding the production, distribution, exchange and use of innovative goods - knowledge and information. The objects of the technology market are the results of intellectual activity in materialized (equipment, technical documentation, etc.) and non-materialized forms (knowledge, experience, techniques, etc.).
In the field of law economic category“technology” is transformed into the concept of “intellectual property”, while the results of intellectual activity can be objects of exclusive right - i.e. protected by patents. A patent is evidence of the exclusive right of its owner to manufacture, use and sell new goods and production methods (technologies) for a certain period.
The global technology market occupies an increasingly significant place in international economic relations, which is facilitated by the main feature of modernity - the growth of the knowledge intensity of the goods and services themselves, as well as the uneven development of countries in the world economy in the scientific and technological sphere, the pace and nature of regional production and investment activity, which demand additional demand for new technologies and information, changes in the instruments and regulations of these markets.
In the internationalization of innovation activities and the system of international technology exchange, the dominant role is played by transnational corporations - TNCs, which account for 4/5 of the world's technological flows. If we talk about such a channel of international technology dissemination as foreign direct investment, it should be noted that most of it migrates within industrialized countries. Another channel through which international technology exchange takes place is international migration of labor (mainly highly qualified specialists).
In addition to traditional mergers and acquisitions, which involve the final legal combination of businesses, in the modern world economy, technological exchange is carried out through joint ventures and strategic alliances, which represent a compromise between cooperation and competition. Managing technology alliances, the purpose of which is primarily or in part, joint technological development, is complicated by the need to maintain a balance between reducing costs and increasing the efficiency of research and development and limiting the disclosure of information and knowledge, because the partner is often also a competitor.
The main form of scientific and technological exchange between countries in modern conditions is international trade in licenses, which is due to a number of factors: the desire to accelerate the introduction of new products to the market, increasingly increasing competition in the world market, protectionism, which prevents the free exchange of goods between countries, cost savings on our own R&D.
A distinctive feature of the international exchange system in recent years is that international technology exchange is increasingly beginning to take on the character of an intra-corporate exchange of goods, services and technologies carried out through TNC channels. Under the influence of this process, at the present stage there is a convergence of national economies. In the context of globalization of the world economy, TNCs are turning into the main link of the scientific and technical infrastructure of the modern economy, performing the functions of its scientific, technical and information services.
2. Russia’s participation in international technology exchange
Russia has long been taking part in international technology exchange; the first experience was mastered during the Soviet era. In the 19070s. last century, Russia successfully traded licenses for inventions on the international market. After the collapse of the USSR in 1991, the management of patent and licensing trade was abolished, and a large mass of contracts for the exchange of technologies began to be carried out directly - between Russian companies and foreign firms.
Among the new legislative acts of the Russian Federation regulating operations in logistics and logistics is the Fourth Part of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation with amendments to and other regulatory legal acts that replaced the scattered laws of the 1990s. (laws on patents, copyright and related rights, on the protection of databases, etc.)
Examples of Russia’s successful participation in international technological cooperation include: the creation in 1994 of the International Science and Technology Center - ISTC jointly with the EU, USA and Japan, the implementation of the Partnership program in the ISTC, in 2004 the Russian-American Innovation Council for High technologies, implementation of international space projects (European VLBI network, MIR, T-170M Telescope), a project to build an international experimental thermonuclear reactor, exchange of technologies and personnel with the USA, EU, Iraq, neighboring countries, etc.
At the same time, as we can see, the form of technology exchange is varied:
sale and transfer of licenses for industrial property objects through licensing agreements, as operations of foreign economic activity;
transfer of technological experience, knowledge, know-how through the preparation of special contracts, when the owner does not patent his invention, but can freely dispose of it, including selling it;
transfer of technological knowledge and experience along with the sale, rental or leasing of equipment, machinery, etc.;
technological cooperation and partnership within the framework of joint scientific, technical, construction and other projects, including in TNCs;
provision of engineering and consulting services;
technological and industrial international cooperation with the transfer of confidential data;
transfer of knowledge, experience, technology within the framework of international investment cooperation;
non-commercial exchange through scientific and technical meetings, conferences, symposiums, exhibitions, fairs, etc.
At the same time, international trade in technology and patent-licensing agreements are very poorly developed in Russia. The procedures for selling licenses abroad are quite lengthy (about a year), which provokes unauthorized free use of intellectual and industrial property of the Russian Federation in circumvention of its laws and regulations.
Russia's presence in the international market of high-tech products and in international technology exchange is unjustifiably low. The internal and external economic situation is complicated by the technological backwardness of the economy, as well as insufficient attention to the problem of building an innovative economy. Effective technology transfer to the national economy and to foreign markets is constrained by a number of factors. The main ones include: low innovative demand in the national economy, primarily for domestic technologies; lack of a wide range of small high-tech enterprises; an unadapted and not market-oriented system of knowledge and technology; lack of preferential treatment for high-tech businesses; lack of a methodological basis and strategic justification for the choice of priority areas of scientific and technological development.
At the same time, one cannot help but recognize the presence of a number of serious problems in the Russian research sphere. “Forecast of scientific and technological development of the Russian Federation for the long term” states that in recent years the state of Russian science has continued to deteriorate. Despite the increase in funding for science, the number of organizations conducting research is decreasing: in 2007 - 3957, in 2008 - 3666, i.e. more than 290 organizations in one year. The number of personnel engaged in research and development continues to decline: from 801,136 people. in 2007 to 761,252 people. in 2008, and the reduction in the number of actual researchers over the same period amounted to more than 17 thousand people.
The second significant problem should be recognized as Russia’s lag behind the most developed countries of the world in terms of the main indicators of funding for the research sector. Thus, according to data for 2008, internal costs for research and development in Russia amounted to 23,471.2 million dollars. USA, while in Great Britain - 38,892.8, Germany - 71,860.8, France -42,232.6, USA - 368,799.0, Japan - 147,800.8 million. This gap becomes even more apparent when one compares per capita spending on science. In Russia this figure is 165.3 dollars. per capita per year, while in the UK - 639.9, in Germany - 873.6, in France - 680.1, in the USA - 1220.8, in Japan - 1156.8 dollars. per capita per year.
Russia still does not have a clear strategy for the technological development of the country, the absence of which makes any options for forming a national innovation system practically untenable. The formation of an innovation-oriented economy requires the definition of long-term strategic guidelines for both the public sector and private business and the creation of mechanisms and incentives for achieving them. Therefore, in order to preserve and develop the country’s scientific and industrial potential, the guiding and regulatory role of the state must be strengthened. In the conditions of an innovative economy, it must develop and implement an appropriate strategy for scientific, technical and industrial development, which would be based on the existing scientific, technical and production potential and would be aimed at promoting structural transformations in the economy towards overcoming export dependence on raw materials and ensuring consistently high dynamics and quality of economic growth due to:
involving accumulated and newly obtained results of fundamental research and applied developments into economic circulation;
use of intellectual property and implementation of innovations that are competitive in the domestic and global markets;
Consolidation and concentration of resources and efforts of government bodies of all levels, organizations in the scientific and technical sphere, and the business sector of the economy.
Prospects for the development of international technological cooperation
The most promising thing for Russia in the next decade is cooperation in logistics with the leading countries in this area - the USA, Japan, the EU and new leaders - China, India, etc. A special place in these plans is occupied by the exchange of technologies with the EU. The positive characteristics of the state of the scientific research sphere in Russia at the present stage include the following. Russia still maintains a satisfactory scientific and technological potential; research is being carried out in almost all areas of science and technology. Research and development is carried out by 3,666 organizations. The number of personnel engaged in research and development is 761,252 people, of which 375,804 are actual researchers. The country has significant advances in a number of areas of science and technological developments. Russia is among the world leaders in a number of important areas and developments, including in such areas as nanotechnology, nuclear and hydrogen energy, energy-saving systems, development of application programs, environmental protection, which are relevant for the scientific and technical activities of European countries. Positive factors also include the presence in certain areas of a strong scientific, experimental and testing base, which in some cases is at the level of the world's best analogues or is unique.
Russia has experience of participating in EU Framework Programs. According to the results of the Sixth Framework Program (2002-2006), it became the leader among third countries (non-EU members and non-associate members) in terms of the number of grants won and participants, ahead of China, the USA and Japan. EU funding amounted to more than 45 million euros.
The results of the first competitions of the Seventh Framework Program (FP7) (2007-2013) confirmed this trend: Russia continued to maintain a leading position among third countries. As part of the past 170 FP7 competitions, 1,639 applications were submitted with the participation of Russian organizations. 323 projects with Russian participation received support. The success rate of Russian participation ranges from 27% to thematic area“Transport”, 23% - “Health”, 15% - “Environment” up to 4% in socio-economic and human sciences and an average of 19%.
In addition, in 2004, the international project of the European Commission ADMIRE-P was launched to involve Russian scientific groups in international cooperation within the framework of scientific and technological programs of the European Union.
Taking into account that the EU countries have a long experience of participating in European scientific, technological and educational programs and the high level of success of this participation, it seems useful to study and use the European experience and the activities of similar structures in the EU countries.
Most European countries are characterized by a multi-level system of support for international scientific and technological cooperation, ensuring the fullest and most effective involvement of researchers in scientific, technological and educational programs.
China can also become an important potential partner for the Russian Federation in the system of international technology exchange. Over the past ten years, China and Russia have effectively collaborated in the development and production of control systems, hardware and software.
Particular attention should be paid to TNCs operating in the Russian markets. Thus, in Russia, the Boeing Corporation, Networks, Motorola, Intel and a number of others contributed to the establishment and optimization of international technological exchange by creating scientific and technical centers and design organizations in our country. The only problem is that many foreign corporations, as well as Russian scientists, do not want to share information about their cooperation, transferring the process of technology exchange to the “shadow” semi-legal sector.
From the standpoint of accelerating the integration of the Russian economy into the world economy, it is important to note that the use of cooperation with TNCs as an international logistics channel should meet the interests of the socio-economic, innovative development of Russia and the preservation of the scientific and technical security of the country. According to V.B. Kondratyev and Yu.V. Kurenkova, “it is necessary to stimulate not just an increase in the volume of foreign investment... but investment by leading transnational companies in full-fledged joint ventures under strict conditions for technology transfer.” Integrating Russian companies into the system of intra-corporate exchange of foreign TNCs, expanding the possibilities of scientific, technical and production cooperation between Russian companies and international players can have a positive impact on Russia’s participation in international logistics.
international technological cooperation
Conclusion
We are convinced that rapid scientific and technological development in the modern world is natural and inevitable. And globalization processes lead to intensification of international cooperation and technology exchange. At the same time, technology refers to empirical and practical knowledge about the organization of production and consumption processes, and exchange refers to economic relations for the distribution of this knowledge. In their material form, technologies are objects of intellectual and industrial property, which are guaranteed and protected by licenses and patents. The exchange is carried out more often precisely as the purchase and sale of patents and licenses.
At the present stage of the functioning of the world economy, a decisive role is played by transnational companies (TNCs), which ensure international technological flows not only through licensed purchase and sale, but also through the distribution of copyright and related rights through mergers, subordination, the formation of international alliances, and promote commercial and non-commercial cooperation .
Russia takes part in the international exchange of technologies quite successfully and effectively, but little is explained by the insufficient development of its economy, insufficient government support for the scientific and innovation sphere, and the reduction in the number of research and technology centers. A possible solution to the problem could be the introduction of state innovation policy, the daily application of the results of fundamental research and applied developments, the use of intellectual property in the domestic and global markets, the pooling and concentration of resources and efforts of government bodies at all levels, and tightening control over the activities of TNCs in Russia. In this case, broad prospects for international technology exchange open up for the Russian Federation.
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