Legislative and executive powers of France. Information educational materials Constitution of 1848 in France
Crisis of 1847–1848 contributed to the creation of a new revolutionary situation and the rapid growth of republican sentiments. The shooting of a peaceful demonstration in February 1848 caused a storm of indignation and an armed uprising. Louis Philippe abdicated the throne.
Created as a result of the February Revolution, the Provisional Government, consisting of representatives of various factions of the French bourgeoisie, under direct pressure from the popular masses of Paris, on February 25, 1848, proclaimed France a republic. The revolutionary situation forced the provisional government to make some social concessions (adopt a decree reducing the working day by one hour, forming national workshops for the unemployed). Outright monarchists and reactionaries were removed from the state apparatus, and troops were withdrawn from Paris.
The reactionary majority of the assembly previously intended to take away from the workers the concessions made as a result of the February revolution and to crush the revolutionary vanguard of the working class. By announcing the closure of national workshops, the government provoked the proletariat of Paris into the June uprising, which was brutally suppressed by War Minister Cavaignac, who received dictatorial powers from the Constituent Assembly.
Adopted on November 4, 1848, the Constitution of the Second Republic was a document that reflected the contradictions of its era. The Constitution no longer contained any discussion of natural human rights, but contained a set of broadcast “social” declarations.
The basis of the republic was declared to be family, labor, property and public order. The Constitution of 1848 directly rejected revolutionary methods of struggle, emphasizing that the republic “strives, without new shocks, only through the consistent and constant action of laws and institutions, to raise citizens to the highest level of morality, education and well-being.” The democratic rights declared in the Constitution were considered an integral element of the capitalist legal order. The enjoyment of freedoms should not go beyond the boundaries of “public safety” or beyond the limits established by special legislation. Thus, one of the goals of the republic was declared to be “a freer march along the path of progress and civilization, the introduction of a more equitable distribution of public duties and benefits.” The Republic assumed the responsibility “through fraternal assistance” to ensure the existence of needy citizens, finding work suitable to their abilities, or supporting those who have no relatives and are unable to work. Instead of clear demands of the proletariat for the right to work, the Constitution provided in vague terms that society “organizes, through the state, departments or communes, public works designed to provide employment for the unemployed.” In the system of government bodies provided for by the Constitution of 1848, a central place was given to the president, independent of parliament and elected directly by the population for a term of 4 years. The President was endowed with broad powers, the right to introduce bills, the right of suspensive veto, the right of pardon, etc. He appointed and dismissed ministers, and, on the advice of the latter, diplomats, commanders-in-chief of the fleet and army, rulers of Algeria and the colonies, as well as a number of other officials. He could control the powerful police-bureaucratic apparatus without control and use the army for his political purposes.
The National Assembly, elected for 3 years by secret ballot and without property qualification by French people over 21 years of age, was endowed with legislative power. But it had no real opportunity to influence the policy of the executive apparatus and was thus doomed to turn into a body without authority and political power.
The Constitution provided for the establishment of a State Council appointed for 6 years by the National Assembly. The creation of this council also weakened the position of parliament. The competence of the Council of State included the preliminary consideration of bills emanating from both the government and the National Assembly itself. His responsibility also included control and monitoring of the administration, i.e. functions of administrative justice.
Second Empire. The very first elections under the Constitution of 1848 demonstrated the weakening of the Republican position. Louis Bonaparte was elected president, not disdaining any means to seize power. On December 2, 1851, under the hypocritical pretext of protecting the republic from conspirators and in direct violation of the Constitution of 1848, Louis Bonaparte dispersed the National Assembly and established an open military dictatorship. For demagogic purposes, Louis Bonaparte, using the techniques of Napoleon I, announced the restoration of universal suffrage. At the same time, a regime of military and political terror was introduced, directed primarily against republicans and democratic forces.
January 14, 1852 Mr. Louis Bonaparte pushed for a new Constitution, which in its features resembled the Bonapartist Constitution of 1799. All power was concentrated in the hands of the president, elected for 10 years. He was the head of the armed forces, appointed ministers and thereby led the police-bureaucratic apparatus. On behalf of the president, the justice of the republic was administered; parliamentarians and officials took an oath of allegiance to him. The legislative process was entirely under the control of the president and was carried out by the Council of State, the Legislative Corps and the Senate. The Senate, at the direction of the president, could make subsequent changes to the constitutional system. The president was reserved the right to directly address the population in the form of a plebiscite, the results of which were predetermined under police control. Thus, all activities of constitutional institutions were placed under the control of the president, whose power, like that of the first consul under the Constitution of 1799, had only a slightly disguised monarchical character. The logical conclusion of the Constitution of 1852 was the Senate consultation and the subsequent plebiscite on the restoration of imperial power in France in the person of Napoleon III. The official proclamation of the Second Empire occurred on December 2, 1852.
After the official proclamation of the empire, the political system of France acquired an increasingly authoritarian character. The Senate Consultation on December 25, 1852 gave the Emperor the right to preside over the State Council and the Senate, issue decrees and determine the expenditure side of the budget, which is only in the most general form approved by the Legislative Corps. Elections to the Legislative Corps were placed under government control. A system of “official candidates” was introduced, which had to be supported by local authorities. Opposition candidates were practically deprived of the opportunity to campaign. In the 60s Due to growing public discontent and the rise of the labor movement, Napoleon III was forced to carry out private liberal reforms (the period of the so-called liberal monarchy). The Legislative Corps and the Senate received the right to annually vote the address to the emperor's throne speech, publish reports on their meetings, and in 1870 they were given the right to itemize the budget.
By imperial decree on March 1, 1854, the corps of gendarmes was restored. He was considered an integral part of the army and was subordinate to the Minister of War. Napoleon's political adventurism led to the fact that in 1870 France was drawn into a war with Prussia. The defeat and capitulation of the French army, which was the result of its complete unpreparedness for war, accelerated the onset of a new bourgeois-democratic revolution and the fall of the Second Empire.
The coalition of states that won a decisive victory over Napoleon hastened to elevate the senior representative of the “legitimate” (legitimate) dynasty, Louis XVIII, to the French throne. The new rulers of France had to accept the "redistribution" of landed property, the bourgeois civil code developed under Napoleon and the destruction of feudal relations, as well as the new administration of France. They agreed to give France a written constitution, known as the Charter of 1834, which d.b. to reconcile the upper classes of the bourgeoisie with the nobility:
- it was recognized that citizens were “equally admitted to civil and military positions”;
- the king's supreme power was limited by the legislative powers of the chambers and the irremovability of judges. Two chambers were created: the upper, appointed by the king, and the lower, elected by a narrow panel consisting of persons paying at least 300 francs in direct taxes;
The charter wanted "all Frenchmen to live as brothers."
Louis XVIII reigned until 1824. His place was taken by Charles X (Artois), the recognized head of the French reaction. The new king rewarded the nobles who had lost lands during the revolution; then reinstated the death penalty for “insulting” the Catholic religion. In 1830, Charles X issued 6 decrees (ordinances): suffrage was narrowed, the legislative competence of the lower house was reduced, and freedom of the press and assembly was eliminated. The response to this policy was July uprising 1830. Charles X was overthrown and fled. The large, mainly financial, bourgeoisie that led the revolution placed on the throne Louis Philippe d'Orléans. The new reign was furnished with a new constitution. There were few changes: the voting qualification was lowered slightly - to 200 francs; for deputies - up to 500. The period when the leadership role in the state was in the hands of a small group of financial magnates.
Second Republic: in the 40s of the 19th century, the era of large-scale machine production began. Consequences: increased hostility between the working class, on the one hand, and the bourgeoisie, on the other; their general dissatisfaction with the regime of the July Monarchy. The industrial bourgeoisie did not want to tolerate the political monopoly of the financial aristocracy. 1847 - crop failure, world trade and industrial crisis - revolution. Opposition circles of the bourgeoisie demanded a reduction in the electoral qualification. February 22 - The working-class suburbs of Paris rose up in defense of electoral reform. The government sent troops against the demonstrators. Cavalry and infantry attacked unarmed and peaceful people demanding bread and reform. The fight continued throughout the next day. The rebels capture the Tuileries. France became a republic for the second time. Having conquered the republic, the workers hoped that it would be social, i.e. will provide them with a sufficient salary, take care of their old age, education for children, etc. These hopes were disappointed. The Constituent Assembly, which opened on May 4, proclaimed bourgeois republic, and only her.
The workers rebelled again, this time not with the bourgeoisie, but against it. The reason for the uprising was the deliberate liquidation of the National Workshops, providing income to thousands of unemployed people. Those laid off had to go to work in the provinces. When the workers asked to cancel the order, the government threatened to use force. The battle lasted five days. The uprising was spontaneous. There was no definite plan of action, no clear program, no leadership center. “We want a social and democratic republic, the autocracy of the people”. There were 50,000 people killed.
Terror was still raging when the Constituent Assembly resumed discussion of a new Constitution of 1848:
- declared France a republic, its principles are freedom equality Brotherhood, and its foundations are family, labor, property and social order;
- the entire old management organization, municipalities, courts and army remained intact. The changes concerned not the content, but the table of contents, not things, but names;
- all power in the state comes from the people, cannot be entrusted to anyone with the right to pass it on by inheritance;
- abolition of any special commissions, emergency courts, death penalty for political crimes;
- legalization of universal male suffrage. But a restrictive clause was introduced - six months of residence. In 1850, the residency requirement was increased to three years.
- Each time, after the solemn proclamation of the next freedom, there was a clause limiting it: “Teaching is free. Freedom of teaching may be enjoyed under the conditions provided by law and under the supreme supervision of the state."; “Citizens have the right to associate in unions, organize peaceful and unarmed assemblies... express their opinions in the press... The exercise of these rights knows no other restrictions than equal rights others and public safety".
- publication of laws National Assembly(unicameral, elected for 3 years), executive power - to the President of the Republic(4 years, by universal suffrage - plebiscite). Direct elections gave the president the same authority as the “people's choice” as the National Assembly itself. The President distributed positions, including officer positions, and the authorities depended on him local government, the armed forces (including the National Guard) were actually subordinate to him. Any attempt by the President to dissolve the Assembly is high treason;
Second Empire: In December 1848, Louis Napoleon was elected president. Denied the right to re-election, the president had to await the expiration of the legal 4-year term, followed by the end of greatness. Louis Napoleon decided to avoid this fate. The President of the Republic was preparing its overthrow. On December 2, 1851, a special proclamation notified Paris that “in the name of the French people,” the President of the Republic was dissolving the National Assembly. From the text of another proclamation it could be concluded that the coup was carried out for the sake of the following state structure: president, elected for 10 years; the state council, which develops bills; the legislative body and the “balancing” Senate; ministries appointed and removed at the will of the president. Under the guise of a republic, adorned with universal suffrage, it was decreed dictatorship of one person. The beginning of the new dictatorship was marked by bloodshed. Wild reprisals against Republicans were carried out throughout France.
In January 1852, a new constitution was approved. At the center of the entire system of government was the president. His power concerned both legislation and administration. He appointed and dismissed ministers. The trial was held in his name. The army and police were in his power. He declared a state of siege. He issued decrees and approved laws.
In November 1852, the Senate and then a plebiscite (universal vote) proclaimed it Emperor of France under the name of Napoleon III. The second empire lasted until 1870. The first battles of the Franco-Prussian War revealed the disintegration of the French government and army. Finally, near Sedan, Prussian-German troops forced the 100,000-strong French army to capitulate. This disaster raised Paris to its feet. The people stormed the Legislative Assembly. Under his direct pressure were the abolition of the empire and the restoration of the republic were decreed- third in a row. It happened September 4, 1870. Power ended up in the hands of a narrow group of professional politicians and military men who appropriated the name government of "national defense". The new French government concentrated its efforts mainly on coming to terms with Prussia at any cost: they were afraid of the revolutionary situation that was developing as a result of military defeat, economic ruin, and poverty of the masses.
Second Republic. Revolution of 1848 In the winter of 1848 The population of Paris, especially the workers, rose up in armed uprising. The immediate impetus for the uprising was the shooting in February of this year of a peaceful unarmed demonstration of Parisians who demanded the democratization of the political system and the adoption of concrete measures to improve the difficult economic situation of the people. The government's atrocity caused a storm of indignation. The very next day, the rebels captured the main strategic points of the capital. Louis Philippe abdicated the throne. A Provisional Government was formed from representatives of the liberal democratic opposition. A republic was proclaimed. The government pledged to introduce universal direct suffrage. The Labor Decree proclaimed the right to work and the duty of the state to provide everyone with work, to reduce the working day in Paris to 10 hours and in the provinces to 11. It was promised to carry out other democratic measures. At the same time, the government strengthened the armed forces. A mercenary so-called mobile guard was created. Formed mainly from declassed elements of society, it became the support of the government in the fight against the radical movement. Soon the Provisional Government increased taxes, which hit the peasantry especially hard. The government tried to use their dissatisfaction for its own purposes, arguing that the increase in taxes was due to the need to support Parisian workers, as if they wanted to live at the expense of the state.
In the spring of 1848, elections were held to the Constituent Assembly, which was supposed to adopt the constitution of the republic. The overwhelming majority of the Assembly were large bourgeois and landowners, generals, and representatives of the highest clergy. After the elections, the new ruling circles abolished all regulations that provided for some improvement in the situation of workers. It is possible that the bourgeois government, encouraged by the election results, deliberately provoked the workers to take action. The uprising began on June 22, 1848. For four days the workers fought heroically on the barricades, but, having no allies, were defeated by the regular army mobiles (Mobile Guard).
Constitution of 1848. The main principles of the state system established by the constitution were: republican form of government, separation of powers, representative government. The National Assembly was declared the highest body of legislative power. He was given the exclusive right to adopt laws, including the budget, resolving issues of war and peace, approving trade agreements and some other issues. Deputies of the Assembly were elected for a term of three years. The head of the executive branch became the president. Under his command were the army, police, and administrative apparatus. The President appointed and dismissed ministers, army and navy commanders, prefects, colonial governors, and other senior officials. The Constituent Assembly placed the president in a largely independent position from parliament: the president was elected by voters from the departments, and not by the Assembly. The State Council was established as an advisory body considering government bills. His competence also included oversight of the application of laws. Members of the Council of State were appointed by the National Assembly for a term of six years. The central and local government bodies did not undergo any significant changes. The previous administrative-territorial division into departments, districts and communes was maintained. The power of the prefect in the department remained unchanged. Universal and direct suffrage by secret ballot was introduced. All French people over the age of 21 who enjoyed civil and political rights were eligible to vote. Those elected could be the same persons who had reached the age of 25. A special chapter of the constitution was devoted to the democratic rights and freedoms of citizens. The democratic institutions fixed in the constitution, as well as the consistently implemented separation of powers, could be successfully implemented only under the condition of a relatively stable internal political situation, which did not exist in France at that time.
Meanwhile, the constitution did not contain the proper legal means of stabilizing society. Moreover, it did not provide for the necessary “counterbalances” in the event of a possible conflict between constitutional authorities. In Art. 68 stated that if the president violates the constitution, it is possible to deprive him of his powers and transfer executive power to the National Assembly. But the Assembly was not endowed with real power to implement such a possibility. The President, on the contrary, did not have the constitutional authority to dissolve the National Assembly, but could do so by force. The liberal democratic provisions of the constitution were short-lived. At first, a 6-month residency requirement for voters was introduced, then it was increased to three years. The determination of the period of residence of workers was made dependent on the testimony of employers. As a result, over 3 million citizens were removed from the voter lists. The adoption of a special law worsened the financial situation of the democratic press.
8. Second Empire Presidential coup. The first elected president of the republic was Louis Napoleon, nephew of Napoleon Bonaparte. A political adventurer, Louis Napoleon was elected mainly thanks to the votes of the peasants, who naively believed Bonapartist agitators who assured that “his uncle’s nephew” would reduce the burden of taxes, provide cheap loans, etc. These promises were not kept. But a lot of time had to pass before the Bonapartist illusions of the peasantry were dispelled forever. As for bankers and large entrepreneurs, the candidacy of Louis Napoleon suited them mainly insofar as they associated with his initial popularity and ambition plans to establish a strong government in the country capable of preventing new revolutionary uprisings and providing them with complete freedom for speculation within the country and colonial seizures abroad. outside of it.
Louis Napoleon took advantage of all this. His desire to remain in power was met by the fixed term of the presidency established by the constitution (four years) and the prohibition of re-election. In December 1851, in gross violation of the constitution, Louis Napoleon, relying on the worst elements of the army, dispersed the National Assembly. The most active anti-Bonapartists were arrested. The Constitution of 1848 was abolished. The republican-democratic groups and organizations that remained by that time were crushed or driven underground by military and police measures. Many republicans were forced to emigrate.
Constitution of 1852. The new constitution was intended to legislate the coup d'état of 1851. Completeness state power was handed over to the president. All the main links of the state mechanism, including the army, gendarmerie, police, and administrative and financial apparatus, were subordinate to him. The President received the right to appoint and remove all senior officials at his discretion. Legislative power was exercised by the State Council, the Legislative Corps and the Senate, but together with the president. He appointed members of the State Council and the Senate. The legislative body was elected by "universal suffrage", but candidates for deputies were approved by the president. Only the head of state was given the right of legislative initiative: based on the proposals of the president, the State Council drafted bills. The latter were accepted or rejected as a whole by the Legislative Corps. The Senate was vested with the right of constitutional control in the field of legislation. Local government did not undergo significant changes this time either. The coup of 1851 did not affect the state apparatus in the slightest. Just as the Napoleonic constitution of 1799 was an intermediate step towards the establishment of a monarchy, so the constitution of 1852 prepared the conditions for the proclamation of an empire. The only difference between the president and the monarch was that his power was not hereditary. He was elected for 10 years.
Restoration of the Empire. In November 1852, by a special law, the empire was restored de jure, and Louis Napoleon became Emperor of the French under the name Napoleon III. The military-police dictatorship of Louis Napoleon was established in the country. The new regime had some specific features. Playing on contradictions, maneuvering between the interests of the bourgeoisie and the proletariat, the empire tried to play the role of a mediator between them, a supra-class arbiter, trying to instill the idea of the possibility of eliminating inter-social contradictions peacefully with the assistance of the authorities. At the same time, the monarchy persecuted democratic organizations. At the end of the 60s. XIX century Attempts were made through individual minor concessions: expanding the rights of the Senate and the Legislative Corps, easing press censorship - to weaken the revolutionary ferment. In 1870, the government announced the adoption of a new, “liberal”, as the official press called it, constitution, the most important innovation of which was a slight expansion of the powers of the Legislative Corps.
Bonapartism. In the politics of the empire in the late 60s. XIX century revealed in its entirety characteristic Bonapartist governance is a combination of demagoguery and repression. The empire saw a way out of the growing difficulties mainly in a new war. A victorious war, in the opinion of ruling circles, was supposed to strengthen the shaky prestige of the Bonapartist regime and divert the attention of ordinary citizens from the problems inner life countries. In the summer of 1870, Louis Napoleon began a war against Prussia, which, however, did a lot to provoke him to this. He intended, among other things, to prevent the historically inevitable unification of Germany. Other German states took the side of Prussia. The war with a united Germany led by Prussia fully revealed the fragility of the Bonapartist empire.
Throughout the existence of the July Monarchy (1830-1848), the movement for democratic change grew stronger, which resulted in the revolution of 1848. On February 25, 1848, the Second Republic was proclaimed in France. A Provisional Government was formed and, on the basis of the new suffrage (21 years and 6 months of residence), elections were held to the Constituent Assembly, which on November 4, 1848 adopted the Constitution of the Second Republic (116 articles). France was proclaimed a social republic.
During the period of the Provisional Government, a 45-centime tax was introduced, which increased by 45% the direct tax on each franc falling on landowners, which caused discontent among the peasantry, but the government used their anger for its own purposes, declaring that it was going to support the Parisian workers. “National workshops” were also created, employing poor workers.
After the elections to the constituent assembly, where the majority of seats were won by the big bourgeoisie and other conservative circles, they decided to abolish all provisions that made life easier for workers, including the liquidation of national workshops, which at that time employed about 100 thousand people. As a result of these actions, the workers of Paris rose in revolt on June 22, 1848 (known as the June Uprising), but without the support of the peasantry, outraged by the 45 centime tax, it fell 4 days later under the attacks of mobile troops consisting of declassed elements of society.
Unlike all previous Constitutions, which usually placed emphasis on natural human rights, this one placed emphasis on the general social purpose of the state. The state helped the poor, looked for work for the unemployed, and there were various types of benefits. The basis of the republic was property, labor and family.
For the first time in the history of France, the institution of presidency was introduced, which was elected for 4 years without the right of re-election.
Powers of the President:
1. Introducing bills;
2. Suspensive veto;
3. Pardon;
4. Army leadership;
5. Conducting foreign policy;
6. Appointment and removal of senior officials.
Limitation of the President's power:
1. Lack of personal command of the army;
2. The veto was canceled by a decision of parliament;
3. Parliament could not be dissolved by the President.
The National Assembly (parliament) was unicameral and consisted of 750 people elected for 3 years, based on universal direct male suffrage by secret ballot. Voters were all citizens over 21 years of age, elected over 25 years of age. Deputies were untouchable and irrevocable.
The State Council was formed by the National Assembly for a period of 6 years. He preliminary reviewed bills, monitored the implementation of laws, and created administrative charters.
The Constitution of 1848 introduced the separation of powers, but did not introduce a system of checks and balances, which ultimately led to the strengthening of the presidency, the abolition of some articles of the Constitution, and authoritarianism.
Second Empire in France
After the election of the Constitution of 1848, it became clear that the position of the Republicans had noticeably weakened. The peasantry was losing faith in the republican form of government, there were various kinds of agitations that the republic had brought only troubles to France, and against the background of them, the authority of Bonaparte, who was rumored to be the “Peasant Emperor,” grew. In addition, there were also differences within the monarchists, in particular between the Bourbonists and the Orléanists. Everything provided good ground for the coup d'etat of Louis Bonaparte, carried out on December 2, 1851, when, under the pretext of defending the empire, he dispersed the National Assembly with the help of the army and established presidential power, which was actually dictatorial.
To strengthen his position, he returned universal suffrage and launched mass terror against the monarchist opposition, but mainly against Democrats and Republicans. On January 14, 1852, he promulgated a new Constitution, which closely resembled the Constitution of 1799 in its main features. The term of his presidency according to the Constitution was 10 years.
Powers of the President:
1. Appointment of ministers who were independent of the National Assembly;
2. Army leadership;
3. Police leadership.
4. Presidency of the Senate and State Council;
5. Determination of the expenditure side of the budget;
6. Issuance of decrees.
All those holding senior positions were required to swear allegiance to him.
The legislative process was under the control of the president. There were 3 legislative bodies - the State Council, the Legislative Corps and the Senate. Of these, only the Legislative Corps was elected, the rest were appointed directly by the president. The Senate, at the initiative of the president, could make changes to the constitutional system. This is what happened when, on December 2, 1852, according to the Senate Consult, France was proclaimed an empire, and Louis Bonaparte was proclaimed emperor with the name Napoleon III Bonaparte.
In the new political conditions, characterized by the growth of political consciousness among the working masses, Napoleon III constantly had to maneuver between various political forces. The carrot and stick method was used. In foreign policy Certain freedoms were also introduced for entrepreneurs, and economic liberalism was introduced. Members of the State Council took part in the speculation. But at the same time, in the background economic liberalism, political freedoms were lost.
After the proclamation of the empire, democracy was practically lost. Thus, elections to the Legislative Corps were placed under the control of the central government, a system of “official candidates” was introduced, when candidates were approved by local authorities, thereby combating the opposition.
In the 60s Due to the growing discontent of the workers, Napoleon III was forced to carry out several liberal reforms (the period of the “liberal monarchy”), but all these reforms were of little significance.
On March 1, 1854, by imperial decree, the Corps of Gendarmes was restored, which was considered as an integral part of the army and was used to fight the opposition. Was under the control of the Minister of War.
The main mechanism of power of Napoleon III was the army, even though he came to power using the slogan “Empire is peace,” but during his reign he repeatedly dragged the country into one or another political adventure. As a rule, this was carried out with the aim of distracting people from pressing problems. So in 1870 France became involved in a war with Prussia.
The French army was unprepared for serious military action and, as a result, lost the war. After the defeat in the battle of Sedan, the emperor was captured, and an uprising was raised in Paris, as a result of which the Parisian governor, General Troilo, came to power, and before that, on September 4, 1870, Napoleon III was removed from power.
The provisional government mostly sought to calm the population of Paris and hold elections to the Constituent National Assembly, to which it transferred power in February 1871.
Related information.
Revolution of 1848
The fall of Napoleon's empire did not lead to the restoration of the republic. In 1814, the Congress of Vienna hastened to elevate Louis XVIII to the French throne, once again restoring the Bourbon dynasty overthrown by the revolution. According to the Charter of 1814, France became a constitutional monarchy with a parliament of 2 chambers (the Chamber of Deputies and the Chamber of Peers). However, Louis XVIII and his successor Charles X persistently tried to restore the pre-revolutionary order.
In July 1830, four Ordinances of Charles X were published, which flagrantly violated the Charter of 1814. The royal decrees caused general indignation, resulting in a revolutionary explosion. The people made a revolution, destroyed the Bourbon monarchy, but could not establish a republic. Conservative forces seized power and installed Louis-Philippe d'Orléans on the throne. The new constitution was the Charter of 1830. Established July Monarchy.
Dissatisfaction with the regime of the July Monarchy very soon spread across various sectors of French society. The growth of political opposition was facilitated by the economic crisis of the “hungry forties.” The economic situation especially deteriorated between 1845 and 1847, as lean years followed one after another, which caused a sharp rise in grain prices. To all the troubles in 1847. Europe was rocked by the global industrial crisis.
The spark flared in France in 1848, after which the revolution acquired unprecedented proportions. It merged the struggle of various layers of society for the democratization of the political system, against elements of the old order that interfered with the industrial revolution, as well as the protests of workers against the bourgeoisie, and national movements (liberation and unification).
The struggle for electoral reform on February 22, 1848 resulted in a revolution. Paris was covered with barricades. On February 24, all important points of the capital fell into the hands of the rebels. Louis Philippe had already agreed to carry out electoral reform, but it was too late. The people demanded his abdication. The king renounced his rights to the throne and fled to England. The July Monarchy was overthrown. The revolution has won. For the second time France becomes a republic.
Was created Provisional Government, which abolished titles of nobility, issued decrees on freedom of the press, political meetings, and the right for all citizens to join the national guard. And finally, a decree was issued introducing universal suffrage for men over 21 years of age. France established the most liberal political regime in Europe.
Constitution of 1848
As a result of the revolution in France, the Second Republic was established, legitimately enshrined in Constitution of November 4, 1848.
The Constitution of 1848 consisted of introduction And 12 chapters. It was based on principles popular sovereignty, natural law and separation of powers.
In administered were proclaimed tasks further state and political development of the country, which consisted in the desire of France “to raise citizens to the highest level of morality, education and well-being”.
First chapter contained a list of rights and freedoms of citizens of the French Republic. Here they declared:
personal integrity
inviolability of home and property
right to fair justice
freedom of conscience
freedom of speech and press
freedom of rallies and meetings (censorship was also prohibited here and the limits of civil liberties were specified: they could be limited only by considerations of public safety)
freedom of education
the right to equal access to all public and government positions
The Constitution restored the principle of separation of powers.
Executive branch
The Constitution gave priority to the executive branch. This power was delegated to the president on behalf of the French people. The status of the President was stipulated in chapter 5– “On the executive power”: he was elected by the population for 4 years and had extensive powers:
right to introduce bills
suspensive veto
right of pardon
the right to appoint and remove ministers and other officials.
At the same time, he could not be re-elected for a second term and did not have the right to dissolve parliament.
The nephew of Napoleon I became the President of the Republic Louis Bonaparte.
Legislature
Legislative power was vested in the Constitution National Assembly, which had no mechanisms at its disposal to influence the executive branch.
The status of the Legislative Assembly was considered in chapter 4–"On Legislative Power". It was elected by the population by secret ballot and consisted of 750 deputies.
The position of the National Assembly was weakened State Council provided for by the Constitution for the preliminary examination of bills. The functions of administrative justice also belonged to him. The State Council was elected by the National Assembly for 6 years, but ½ of the composition was renewed with elections to the Assembly.
Judicial branch
The status of the judiciary and its powers were not regulated in detail by the Constitution. Chapter 8 The document proclaimed the equality of all before the law, as well as the main public justice. The existence of a jury trial was also provided for.
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