When and where was Alexander the Great born? Alexander the Great: biography and interesting facts from life
Alexander III of Macedon (356 to 323 BC) is one of the most influential political figures of antiquity. A majestic commander who conquered territory from the coast of Greece to northern Africa, including the lands of modern Turkey, Pakistan and Iran.
On the 13th anniversary of his reign, the legendary warrior of Ancient Egypt united the lands of East and West through certain fighting techniques and cultural exchange. By the time of the death of Alexander the Great, which overtook him on the battlefield at the age of 32, his reputation had reached such a peak that he began to be canonized. It is not always possible to separate the truth from the myths that have woven around the ruler for centuries. Everyone knows about the king's conquests, but few know who Alexander the Great really was.
1. Macedonian's main teacher was Aristotle, and he studied with other philosophers.
Philip II of Macedon invited Aristotle, the greatest of all philosophers in history, to raise his son, 13-year-old Alexander - heir to the throne. Few facts are known about the three years spent by the future commander under the tutelage of the scientist. At the same time, in Greece, Alexander the Great tried to find the famous ascetic Diogenes, who was a great cynic and, to prove his beliefs, spent his nights in a large clay vessel. Alexander approached the thinker in the public square and asked Diogenes if he could offer him anything from his countless riches. To which the philosopher replied:
“Yes you can. Step aside: you blocked the sun from me" The young prince was fascinated and impressed by Diagenes' refusal and declared: “E If I had not been born Alexander, I would have been Diogenes.”
A few years later in India, Macedonsky stopped the fighting due to the need to continue his dispute with the gymnosophist, a representative of the religious Hindu group “Jane”, who shunned human vanity and wearing luxurious clothes.
2. For 15 years of military conquests, the Macedonian army did not lose a single battle.
The strategy and tactics of warfare of Alexander the Great are still included in the curriculum of military schools. He won his first victory at the age of 18. He led troops with great speed while allowing them to expend a minimum of force to reach and break enemy lines before the enemy could react. Having gained the Greek kingdom in 334 BC. the commander crossed to Asia (today the territory of Turkey), where he won a battle with Persian troops led by Darius III.
3. Macedonian named more than 70 cities after his name and one in honor of his horse.
In memory of his victories, the commander founded several cities. As a rule, they were built around military forts. He called them Alexandria. The largest city was founded at the mouth of the Nile River in 331 BC. Today, the northern capital ranks second in area among Egyptian cities. Other settlements are located along the path of the military achievements of the Greek heir to the throne: in Iran, Turkey, Tajikistan, Pakistan and Afghanistan. Near the Hydaspes River, where the most difficult victory of the Indian campaign was won, the city of Busefal was founded, named after the favorite horse of Macedon, who was mortally wounded in battle.
4. Alexander’s love for his future wife Roxana flared up at first sight.
After a lightning capture in 327 BC. hitherto impregnable mountain fortress, Sogdian Rock, the 28-year-old military leader examined his captives. At that moment, Roxana, a teenage girl from a noble family of Bactria, caught his eye. Soon after, as was customary in wedding ceremonies, the king cut a loaf of bread with a sword and shared half with his bride. A son from Roxana, Alexander IV, was born after the death of Macedon.
5. Alexander had a wonderful smell.
Plutarch in “The Lives of the Noble Greeks and Romans,” almost four centuries after the death of the king, reports that Alexander’s skin “ gave off a pleasant smell", And his “his breath and body were so fragrant that the clothes he wore were as if covered with perfume" “The detail inherent in the olfactory characteristics of the king's image is often attributed to tradition that arose during his reign. The rulers were endowed with divine attributes as all-conquering and powerful.” Alexander himself openly called himself the son of Zeus during his visit to Zeus in 331 BC.
6. After the victory over Persia, Macedonian adopted the traditional Persian clothing style.
After six years of constant invasions of the Persian Empire in 330 BC. The Macedonian army managed to capture Pesepolis, the ancient center of Persian culture. Realizing that the best way to maintain control over the local population was to adopt their lifestyle, the Greek commander began wearing a striped belted tunic and a diadem. This horrified the cultural Punists in Macedonia. In 324 BC. he held a magnificent wedding in the city of Susa, where 92 Macedonians were forced to marry Persian women. Alexander himself married Stateira and Parysatis.
7. The cause of death of Alexander the Great represents the greatest secret of the ancient world.
Siwa Oasis, Egypt
In 323 BC. The famous ruler fell ill after drinking wine at a feast. A few days later, at the age of 32, Makedonsky died. Considering that the father was killed by his own assistant, the suspects included the king’s inner circle, especially his wife Antipater and her son, Cassandra. Some ancient biographers even suggested that the entire Antipater family became the organizers. Modern medical experts speculate that the cause of Macedonski's death was malaria, liver failure, lung infection, or typhoid fever.
8. Alexander’s body is kept in a vat of honey.
Plutarch reports that the body of Macedon was first sent to Babylon to Egyptian embalmers. However, leading Egyptologist A. Wallis Budge has suggested that the remains of the ancient Egyptian warrior were immersed in honey to prevent decay. A year or two later it was returned to Macedonia, but it was intercepted by Ptolemy I, one of the former generals. Therefore, knowing the location of the Macedonian body, Ptolemy received the status of successor to the great empire.
The chronicles describe how Julius Caesar, Mark Antony and the future Emperor of Rome Octavin (Augustus Caesar) made a pilgrimage to the tomb of the Macedonian in . In 30 BC. Octavian examined the 300-year-old mummy of Macedon and laid a wreath on it. The last record of a visit to the tomb by the Roman Emperor Caracal was dated 215 BC. The tomb was subsequently destroyed and its location forgotten due to political upheaval and the beginning of the Roman era.
Alexander the Great (Alexander the Great) b. July 20 (21), 356 BC e. – d.s. June 10 (13), 323 BC e. King of Macedonia from 336, the most famous commander of all times and peoples, who created the largest monarchy of antiquity by force of arms.
In terms of the actions of Alexander the Great, it is difficult to compare with any of the great commanders in world history. It is known that he was revered by such world-shaking conquerors as... In fact, the aggressive campaigns of the king of the small state of Macedonia in the very north of Greek lands had a serious impact on all subsequent generations. And the military leadership of the king of Macedonia became a classic for people who devoted themselves to military affairs.
Origin. early years
Alexander the Great was born in Pella. He was the son of Philip II of Macedon and Queen Olympias, daughter of the Epirus king Neoptolemus. The future hero of the Ancient World received a Hellenic upbringing - his mentor since 343 was perhaps the most legendary ancient Greek philosopher, Aristotle.
“Alexander... admired Aristotle and, in his own words, loved his teacher no less than his father, saying that he owes to Philip that he lives, and to Aristotle that he lives with dignity,” wrote Plutarch.
Tsar-commander Philip II himself taught his son the art of war, in which he soon succeeded. In ancient times, the winner of a war was considered a man of great statesmanship. Tsarevich Alexander commanded a detachment of Macedonian soldiers for the first time when he was 16 years old. For that time, this was a common phenomenon - the king’s son simply could not help but be a military leader in the lands under his control.
Fighting in the ranks of the Macedonian army, Alexander exposed himself to mortal danger and received several serious wounds. The great commander sought to overcome his own fate with audacity, and the strength of the enemy with courage, for he believed that for the brave there is no barrier, and for cowards there is no support.
Young commander
Prince Alexander demonstrated his military talent and courage as a warrior already in 338, when he defeated the “sacred detachment” of the Thebans in the Battle of Chaeronea, in which the Macedonians clashed with the troops of Athens and Thebes united against them. The prince commanded the entire Macedonian cavalry in the battle, numbering 2,000 horsemen (in addition, King Philip II had another 30,000 well-trained and disciplined infantry). The king himself sent him with heavily armed cavalry to the enemy flank where the Thebans stood.
The young commander with the Macedonian cavalry with a swift blow defeated the Thebans, who were almost all destroyed in the battle, and after that he attacked the flank and rear of the Athenians.
Accession to the throne
This victory brought Macedonia dominance in Greece. But for the winner it was the last. Tsar Philip II, who was preparing a large military campaign in Persia, was killed by conspirators in August 336. 20-year-old Alexander, who ascended his father’s throne, executed all the conspirators. Along with the throne, the young king received a well-trained army, the core of which consisted of detachments of heavy infantry - spearmen, armed with long lances - sarissas.
There were also numerous auxiliary troops, which consisted of mobile light infantry (mainly archers and slingers) and heavily armed cavalry. The army of the King of Macedonia widely used various throwing and siege engines, which were carried disassembled with the army during the campaign. Among the ancient Greeks, military engineering was at a very high level for that era.
Tsar-commander
First of all, Alexander established the hegemony of Macedonia among the Greek states. He forced him to recognize the unlimited power of the supreme military leader in the upcoming war with Persia. The king threatened all his opponents only with military force. 336 - he was elected head of the Corinthian League, he took the place of his father.
Afterwards, Alexander made a victorious campaign against the barbarians living in the Danube valley (the Macedonian army crossed the deep river) and coastal Illyria. The young king, by force of arms, forced them to recognize his rule and help him with their troops in the war with the Persians. Because rich military booty was expected, the leaders of the barbarians willingly agreed to go on a campaign.
While the king was fighting in the northern lands, false rumors about his death spread throughout Greece, and the Greeks, especially the Thebans and Athenians, opposed Macedonian rule. Then the Macedonian, with a forced march, unexpectedly approached the walls of Thebes, captured and destroyed this city to the ground. Having learned a sad lesson, Athens surrendered, and they were treated generously. The harshness he showed towards Thebes put an end to the opposition of the Greek states to warlike Macedonia, which at that time had the strongest and most combat-ready army in the Hellenic world.
334, spring - the king of Macedonia began a campaign in Asia Minor, leaving the military commander Antipater as his governor and giving him an army of 10 thousand. He quickly crossed the Hellespont on ships collected for this purpose at the head of an army consisting of 30,000 infantry and 5,000 cavalry. The Persian fleet was unable to prevent this operation. At first, Alexander did not encounter serious resistance until he reached the Granik River, where large enemy forces were waiting for him.
Alexander's conquests
In May, on the banks of the Granik River, the first serious battle took place with the Persian troops, commanded by the famous commander Memnon of Rhodes and several royal commanders - satraps. The enemy army consisted of 20 thousand Persian cavalry and a large number of hired Greek foot soldiers. According to other sources, the 35,000-strong Macedonian army was opposed by a 40,000-strong enemy army.
Most likely, the Persians had a noticeable numerical advantage. It was especially expressed in the number of cavalry. Alexander the Great, in front of the enemy's eyes, resolutely crossed the Granik and was the first to attack the enemy. At first, he easily defeated and scattered the Persian light cavalry, and then destroyed a phalanx of Greek mercenary infantry, of whom less than 2,000 were captured and survived. The winners lost less than a hundred soldiers, the vanquished - up to 20,000 people.
In the Battle of the Granik River, the Macedonian king personally led the heavily armed Macedonian cavalry and often found himself in the thick of the battle. But he was rescued either by the bodyguards who fought nearby, or by his personal courage and military skill. It was personal courage, coupled with military leadership, that brought the Great Commander unprecedented popularity among the Macedonian soldiers.
After this brilliant victory, most of the cities of Asia Minor with a predominantly Hellenic population opened their fortress gates to the conqueror, including Sardis. Only the cities of Miletus and Halicarnassus, famous for their independence, put up stubborn armed resistance, but they could not repel the onslaught of the Macedonians. At the end of 334 - beginning of 333 BC. e. The Macedonian king conquered the regions of Caria, Lycia, Pamphylia and Phrygia (in which he took the strong Persian fortress of Gordion), in the summer of 333 - Cappadocia and headed to Cilicia. But Alexander’s dangerous illness stopped this victorious march of the Macedonians.
Having barely recovered, the king moved through the Cilician mountain passes to Syria. The Persian king Darius III Kodoman, instead of waiting for the enemy on the Syrian plains, advanced at the head of a huge army to meet him and cut off the enemy’s communications. Near the city of Issa (modern Iskenderun, former city of Alexandretta), in northern Syria, one of the largest battles took place in the history of the Ancient World.
The Persian army outnumbered the forces of Alexander the Great by approximately three times, and according to some estimates, even 10 times. Usually sources indicate a figure of 120,000 people, of which 30,000 were Greek mercenaries. Therefore, King Darius and his military leaders had no doubt about complete and quick victory.
The Persian army took a convenient position on the right bank of the Pinar River, which crossed the Issus Plain. It was simply impossible to flank it unnoticed. King Darius III probably decided to frighten the Macedonians with just the sight of his huge army and achieve complete victory. Therefore, he did not rush things on the day of the battle and gave the enemy the initiative to start the battle. It cost him dearly.
The king of Macedonia was the first to launch an attack, moving forward a phalanx of spearmen and cavalry operating on the flanks. The heavy Macedonian cavalry (cavalry of the “comrades”), under the command of Alexander the Great himself, moved to attack from the left bank of the river. With her impulse, she drew the Macedonians and their allies into battle, setting them up for victory.
The ranks of the Persians were mixed up, and they fled. The Macedonian cavalry pursued the fleeing for a long time, but could not catch Darius. Persian casualties were enormous, perhaps more than 50,000.
The Persian camp along with Darius' family went to the winner. In an effort to win the sympathy of the population of the conquered lands, the king showed mercy to the wife and children of Darius, and allowed the captured Persians, if they wished, to join the ranks of the Macedonian army and its auxiliary units. Many captive Persians took advantage of this unexpected opportunity to escape shameful slavery on Greek soil.
Because Darius with the remnants of his army fled far, to the banks of the Euphrates River, the Great Commander moved to Phenicia with the goal of conquering the entire eastern, Syrian coast of the Mediterranean Sea. At this time, he twice rejected the Persian king's proposal for peace. Alexander the Great dreamed only of conquering the huge Persian power.
In Palestine, the Macedonians met unexpected resistance from the Phoenician fortress city of Tire (Sur), located on an island near the coast. The shooting range was separated from the land by a strip of water of 900 meters. The city had high and strong fortress walls, a strong garrison and squadron, large supplies of everything necessary, and its inhabitants were determined to defend their native Tire from foreign invaders with arms in hand.
A seven-month, incredibly difficult siege of the city began, in which the Macedonian navy took part. Various throwing and battering machines were brought along the dam under the very walls of the fortress. After many days of efforts by these machines, the fortress of Tire was taken by the besiegers during a fierce assault.
Only part of the city's residents were able to escape on ships, whose crews broke through the blockade ring of the enemy fleet and were able to escape to the Mediterranean Sea. During the bloody assault on Tire, 8,000 citizens died, and about 30,000 were sold into slavery by the victors. The city itself, as a warning to others, was practically destroyed and for a long time ceased to be a center of navigation in the Mediterranean.
After this, all the cities in Palestine submitted to the Macedonian army, except for Gaza, which was taken by force. The victors in a rage killed the entire Persian garrison, the city itself was plundered, and the inhabitants were sold into slavery. This happened in November 332.
Egypt, one of the most populous countries of the Ancient World, submitted to the Great General of antiquity without any resistance. At the end of 332, the conqueror founded the city of Alexandria in the Nile Delta on the sea coast (one of many that bore his name), which soon turned into a major commercial, scientific and cultural center of Hellenic culture.
During the conquest of Egypt, Alexander showed the wisdom of a great statesman: he did not touch local customs and religious beliefs, in contrast to the Persians, who constantly offended these feelings of the Egyptians. He was able to win the trust and love of the local population, which was facilitated by the extremely reasonable organization of government of the country.
331, spring - the Macedonian king, having received significant reinforcements from the royal governor in Hellas, Antipater, again went to war against Darius, who had already managed to gather a large army in Assyria. The Macedonian army crossed the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, and at Gaugamela, not far from the city of Arbela and the ruins of Nineveh, on October 1 of the same year, the opponents fought in battle. Despite the significant superiority of the Persian army in numbers and absolute superiority in cavalry, Alexander the Great, thanks to the skillful tactics of conducting an offensive battle, was again able to win a brilliant victory.
Alexander the Great, who was with his heavy cavalry "comrades" on the right flank of the Macedonian battle position, opened a gap between the left flank and the center of the Persians and then attacked their center. After stubborn resistance, despite the fact that the Macedonian left flank was under strong enemy pressure, the Persians retreated. In a short time, their huge army turned into crowds of uncontrollable armed people. Darius III was among the first to flee, and his entire army ran behind him in complete disorder, suffering huge losses. The winners lost only 500 people.
From the battlefield, Alexander the Great moved towards the city, which surrendered without a fight, although it had powerful fortress walls. Soon the victors captured the Persian capital of Persepolis and the huge royal treasury. The brilliant victory at Gaugamela made Alexander the Great the ruler of Asia - now the Persian power lay at his feet.
By the end of 330, the Great Commander had subjugated all of Asia Minor and Persia, achieving the goal set by his father. In less than 5 years, the king of Macedonia was able to create the greatest empire of that era. In the conquered territories, local nobility ruled. Only military and financial affairs were entrusted to the Greeks and Macedonians. In these matters, Alexander the Great trusted exclusively his people from among the Hellenes.
In the next three years, Alexander made military campaigns in the territory of what is now Afghanistan, Central Asia and Northern India. After which he finally put an end to the Persian state, whose fugitive king, Darius III Kodoman, was killed by his own satraps. Then came the conquest of the regions - Hyrcania, Aria, Drangiana, Arachosia, Bactria and Sogdiana.
Having finally conquered the populous and rich Sogdiana, the Macedonian king married Roxalana, the daughter of the Bactrian prince Oxyartes, who especially valiantly fought against him, thereby trying to strengthen his dominance in Central Asia.
328 - Macedonian, in a fit of anger and intoxicated with wine, stabbed during a feast the military leader Cleitus, who saved his life in the battle of Granicus. At the beginning of 327, a conspiracy of noble Macedonians was discovered in Bactria, who were all executed. The same conspiracy led to the death of the philosopher Callisthenes, a relative of Aristotle. This last punishing act of the great conqueror was difficult to explain, because his contemporaries were well aware of how highly the student revered his wise teacher.
Having finally subjugated Bactria, Alexander the Great in the spring of 327 undertook a campaign in Northern India. His army of 120,000 consisted mainly of troops from conquered lands. Having crossed the Hydaspes River, he entered into battle with the army of King Porus, which included 30,000 foot soldiers, 200 war elephants and 300 war chariots.
The bloody battle on the banks of the Hydaspes River ended with another victory for the great commander. A significant role in it was played by the light Greek infantry, which fearlessly attacked the war elephants, which the eastern warriors were so afraid of. A fair portion of the elephants, enraged by their numerous wounds, turned around and rushed through their own battle formations, confusing the ranks of the Indian army.
The winners lost only 1,000 soldiers, while the vanquished lost much more - 12,000 were killed and another 9,000 Indians were captured. The Indian king Porus was captured, but was soon released by the winner. Then the army of Alexander the Great entered the territory of modern Punjab, winning several more battles.
But further advance into the interior of India was stopped: open murmur began in the Macedonian army. The soldiers, exhausted from eight years of constant military campaigns and battles, begged Alexander to return home to distant Macedonia. After reaching the Indian Ocean along the banks of the Indus, Alexander the Great had to obey the wishes of the army.
Death of Alexander the Great
But the king of Macedonia never had the chance to return home. In Babylon, where he lived, busy with state affairs and plans for new conquests, after one of the feasts, Alexander suddenly fell ill and died a few days later at the 33rd year of his life. Dying, he did not have time to appoint his successor. One of his closest associates, Ptolemy, transported the body of Alexander the Great in a golden coffin to Alexandria and buried it there.
Collapse of the empire
The consequences of the death of the Great commander of antiquity were not long in coming. Just a year later, the huge empire created by Alexander the Great ceased to exist. It broke up into several constantly warring states, ruled by the closest associates of the hero of the Ancient World.
Alexander the Great
The first powerful European to visit India was the ancient commander Alexander the Great. His life was surrounded by an aura of secrets and mysteries. The family of his father, Philip II, as was customary among noble people in those days, was considered to go back to Hercules, and the family of his mother, Olympias, to Achilles’ grandfather Aeacus. According to a widespread legend that appeared during his lifetime, he himself was conceived by his mother Olympias from the supreme Greek god Zeus. These kinds of people, born from a god/goddess and mortals, were considered heroes by the Greeks because they combined both divine and human traits. According to another legend widespread in the East, Alexander’s father was a descendant of the Egyptian pharaohs - the fugitive priest Nectaneb, who was forced to leave Egypt because he was a contender for the throne and a bearer of royal blood. He settled in the capital of Macedonia, Pella, where he bewitched Queen Olympias and from her relationship with him, Olympias became pregnant with Alexander. According to the third version, which became widespread in Persia, Philip II of Macedon allegedly lost the battle to the Persians, and the Persian king Darius II, among the tributes, took Philip’s daughter, who in the Persian novels about Alexander bore the Persian name Khalai, which was strange for a Macedonian princess. Darius spent the night with her, as a result of which she conceived Alexander, but due to the physical disability of Philip's daughter, Darius lost interest in her and returned her to her homeland, where she gave birth to the future commander. This version is the most incredible of all, since it contains a number of fictional events, such as the defeat of Philip by the Persians, while the historical Philip fought mainly with the Greeks, and viewed the Persians as a powerful and irresistible force in the East. This legend was necessary for the Persians in order to count Alexander among their kings. The Persians could not imagine being ruled by a foreigner, and therefore a bearer of evil and wickedness.
Alexander is one of the few people of antiquity whose date of birth is precisely known. He was born on July 22, 356 BC. e. in Pella. According to legend, it was on this very day that Herostratus burned one of the 7 wonders of the world - the Temple of Artemis of Ephesus.
The Macedonians were not Greeks. For many centuries, Macedonia was considered a barbaric province and was known for its low morals. However, the proximity to Greek cities, which were at that time centers of civilization, benefited the Macedonians. At the court of the Macedonian kings they diligently imitated the Hellenes. The Greek language, literature, history, and philosophy were held in high esteem. Philip II made the outstanding philosopher Aristotle the teacher and educator for the prince. The Macedonians also adopted military science from the Greeks and achieved great success in it. His father became the military teacher of the future great commander. Alexander showed his first example of personal heroism at the Battle of Chaeronea at the age of 18. Then the troops of the Greek cities were defeated by the Macedonians and all of mainland Greece fell under Macedonian rule. In 335, after the death of his father, Alexander undertook his first independent military campaign - against the Illyrian, Triballi and Getae tribes living to the north-west of Macedonia. At this time, an uprising began in the cities of Central Greece. The rebels intended to take advantage of Alexander's absence and his youth, but, having quickly dealt with the Illyrians, he crossed the peninsula with a lightning march and pacified the rebels.
Strictly speaking, Macedonian rule was not such an unbearable yoke for Greece; the Macedonians very quickly Hellenized, adopted the Greek language, Greek customs and traditions. In addition, Alexander figured out how to rid Macedonia of the uprisings of Greek cities: he decided to lead the Greek army in their war against the Persians. The fact is that several hundred years before Alexander, Persian troops invaded Greece. The personal courage of the Greeks, defending themselves from the invasion of barbarian hordes from the east, stopped the attackers, but in the memory of the Greeks this invasion was a dark stain on their military history and they tried to take revenge on the Persians. Since then, the Persians owned the rich and fertile lands of Asia Minor (modern Turkey).
The military campaign against the Persians solved two problems - it deprived the Greek cities of combat-ready soldiers who could rebel against the Macedonians, and made Alexander the idol of the Greeks, who made their dream of revenge on the Persians come true. The Persian Empire of that time was a loose state formation stretching for many thousands of kilometers from Asia Minor and Egypt to India. The famous biblical expression “colossus with feet of clay” refers to it. However, the Persians could send troops from the provinces they had conquered, so the fight against the Persians promised to be difficult and difficult. The very thought of war with a huge empire seemed like a gamble.
In the spring of 334, the Greek-Macedonian army crossed the Hellespont (Dardanelles) and entered Asia Minor, which meant the beginning of the war with Persia. Asian barbarians often invaded Europe, but this was the first time European troops invaded Asia. And what’s more, they invaded successfully. Not counting the auxiliary lightly armed detachments, Alexander’s army had 30,000 infantry and 5,000 cavalry. The army was commanded by experienced Greek commanders Antipater, Ptolemy Lagus, Parmenion, Philotas, and Perdiccas. However, the Persian army significantly outnumbered the Greco-Macedonian one. Moreover, the alliance of Greek cities of Asia Minor sided with the Persians. After the invasion, the Persians saved these cities from destruction, and now the Greeks of Asia Minor fought on the side of the Persians. But the small number of Greek-Macedonian troops was more than offset by their high fighting qualities, organization, experience and technical equipment. Alexander's army had pontoons, battering rams and assault towers. In addition, the Greeks were inspired by the opportunity to take revenge on the offenders of their ancestors. Strictly speaking, Alexander’s army was not Macedonian, but Greek; the Macedonians themselves made up a small percentage of it and were represented mainly by Alexander’s personal guard.
After the victory in May 334 at r. Granina found the whole of Asia Minor in the hands of Alexander.
The Greek cities, which were allies of the Persians, now opened their gates to Alexander and begged for leniency. In the fall of 333, the Persian king Darius III, the great-grandson of the same Darius who ravaged Greek cities, tried to return Asia Minor under his rule - to defeat Alexander’s troops at Issus. But despite their triple superiority in strength, the Persians were defeated, and Darius III himself fled. Darius's flight was not cowardice, as one might think - he assumed that the Greek army would chase him, and on Persian territory, unfamiliar to the Greeks, he could be easily defeated. This is exactly what the Scythians did to Darius I at one time: they lured his army deep into their territory and exhausted him. However, Alexander also remembered the “Scythian tactics” and did not fall for this trick.
He moved south and captured cities on the eastern coast of the Mediterranean almost without a fight. The fact is that Alexander’s army was closely connected with Greek cities, and fleets based in Mediterranean ports could disrupt the army’s supply across the Aegean Sea. In addition, these cities, famous centers of maritime trade, brought Alexander rich booty. It was here, in Syro-Palestine, that Alexander made the first rotation of his own army: he left his veterans here, founding 10 cities for them, and recruited troops from local residents. This military trick is very popular in the art of generalship: it is common knowledge that people hate their neighbors most of all, therefore, when recruiting soldiers in a certain region, he was sure that his army would have additional motivation to campaign against their neighbors. This is exactly what, by the way, many imperial conquerors did, such as the Mongol-Tatars. In addition, the fighting spirit of the Greeks, who had conquered Asia Minor, was gradually drying up and fresh forces were needed. In addition, by settling the Greeks in Syro-Palestine, he gained certain leverage over the local political situation. Another important advantage of this additional recruitment was that the cities were deprived of warriors who could raise an uprising.
When talking about Alexander’s military-strategic legacy, we often have to use the word “for the first time.” For the first time in history, Alexander used interaction between military branches: simultaneously with the ground forces marching along the coast, Alexander’s fleet attacked the enemy’s fleet from the sea, thus dealing a double blow to the enemy. And another innovation of Alexander that has survived to the present day is that for the first time the troops were dressed in a common uniform. Previously, every soldier going to war had to equip himself at his own expense. Now uniforms were issued to the soldiers centrally, and in battle such an army, dressed in the same armor shining in the sun, made a frightening and demoralizing impression on the enemy. Alexander also introduced innovations into military tactics. A phalanx of heavy infantry, armed with swords and long spears (sarissas), formed the center and basis of the battle formation of the Greco-Macedonian army. On one of the flanks (usually on the right), Alexander created a strong group of heavy cavalry and medium infantry, intended to deliver the main blow. The rest of the cavalry and light infantry were used to cover the other flank and to start the battle. The onslaught of the phalanx from the front was combined with the decisive actions of the strike group, which broke through to the flank or rear of the main enemy forces and decided the outcome of the battle in its favor. Subsequently, this tactic became widespread.
According to legend, Alexander treated the Jerusalem Temple favorably and even received a blessing there for having delivered Judea from the Persians. However, he received similar blessings in other cities, which rather testified to the priestly “sanction” for the transition of cities and kingdoms to the rule of the winner. When in the winter of 332/331 BC. e. Alexander occupied Egypt, the Egyptian priests officially recognized him as the son of the supreme Egyptian god Ammon of Thebes and pharaoh. It can be assumed that the popular legend in Greece about the conception of Alexander from Zeus is an echo of these Egyptian dynastic legends.
Most likely, having captured Egypt, Alexander did not even think about more; by that time his empire was already very large. He paid a lot of attention to the choice of location and construction of a new city named after him - Alexandria. The demands placed on the city were very serious. First of all, it had to be a port city, which means it had to have a convenient bay, protected from both attacks and storms. In order to withstand a long siege, the city had to be well supplied with water - 12 rivers flowed through Alexandria during the time of Alexander. The land had to be fertile - on the site of Alexandria there were 16 villages, which means that this land could feed farmers.
But it turned out that the respite in Egypt was short-lived - Darius gathered troops and was preparing to attack Alexander. Not wanting to let Darius near the rich cities of Phenicia and Syro-Palestine, Alexander’s army headed to Mesopotamia, where on October 1, 331, near Gaugamela, inflicted a decisive defeat on the Persians. Victory went to Alexander's small, but well-armed and well-motivated troops.
Darius III fled again and tried to gather a new army, but in 330 one of the satraps (rulers of the provinces conquered by the Persians) ordered the death of Darius, in the hope of exchanging the king's head for the leniency of Alexander. According to a later Persian legend, residents of the city of Hamadan brought the mortally wounded Darius to Alexander’s tent. Darius forgave Alexander, but made three promises from him: to take revenge on his murderers, to marry his daughter Roushanak so that power would remain in his family, and not to install a foreign ruler over the Persians.
Another legend tells that Alexander, disguised as a messenger, himself went to the court of Darius. Darius suspected that Alexander himself was in front of him, but could not prove it, because neither he himself nor his entourage had ever seen Alexander. When the Persian ambassadors arrived at Darius' headquarters in the evening and had seen Alexander, he managed to escape from Darius's headquarters under cover of darkness and return to the location of his army. This legend dates back to the late Middle Ages; it is fantastic precisely because of the reckless courage attributed to Alexander, who, at the risk of being captured by enemies, nevertheless penetrates Darius’s headquarters.
If earlier Alexander walked through lands once conquered by the Persians, and therefore the local population viewed him as a liberator, then, having crossed Mesopotamia, Alexander’s troops entered the Persian lands themselves. However, after the death of Darius, the Persian cities did not offer significant resistance. The conqueror entered the ancient capital of Mesopotamia, Babylon, and, building on his success, captured the ancient capitals of the Persian Empire - Susa, Persepolis and Ecbatana. Since Darius III died, Alexander was declared by the Persians to be his “legitimate” successor. So from a “Hellenic liberator” he turned into an eastern monarch, whose empire was even larger than the former Persian one. However, Alexander did not immediately become an eastern ruler and despot; in one of the first Persian campaigns, he ordered the burning of the palace of the Persian kings in Istakhr.
As under the Persians, his army and administration included many representatives of the local nobility of the conquered countries, which contributed to the interpenetration of Greek and Eastern cultures. In the captured cities, Alexander surrounded himself with local nobility, and at court he introduced a magnificent Persian ceremony. Attempts to become an Asian despot caused a negative reaction among the Greeks, accustomed to democracy, and every now and then conspiracies broke out at court - the “plot of pages”, the conspiracy of the commander Philots, the conspiracy of Cleitus, a close friend of Alexander. It should be said that the conspirators were not personal enemies of the commander, they tried to defend the democratic traditions of governance to which they were accustomed in Greece, but Alexander could no longer stop - the eastern despotism captivated him with the unlimited power and pliability of the natives, ready to bow to any stupidity of the ruler.
According to Persian sources, Alexander ordered the collection of books on philosophy and astrology that had survived the battles and city fires, translated them into Greek and sent them to Greece. It is quite possible that this legend is true; Thus, Alexander wanted to give a valuable gift to his teacher and educator - the philosopher Aristotle. However, the fate of the translated books is unknown: either after the death of Alexander the order was forgotten, or the books disappeared on the way to Macedonia, but it is reliably known that after Alexander, Greek translations of Egyptian, Central Asian, Mesopotamian and Persian religious and astrological texts began to penetrate into Greece. It is quite possible that it was from these ancient books delivered to Greece that the Greek astrologer and philosopher Beross (other names - Berossos, Bel Rushu) drew his knowledge, who, being a Babylonian by origin, soon after the conquest of Babylon by Alexander came to Greece and founded Kos island astrological school. Here, based on ancient eastern treatises, he wrote several works that have not reached us.
In 330 BC. e. Alexander continued his campaign and occupied the central part of the Iranian plateau, and the following year invaded Central Asia, which at that time was inhabited by semi-nomadic tribes who spoke Iranian dialects. In the next few years, he subjugated all of Iran and the south of Central Asia and reached the borders of India. Before Alexander, the Persians fought unsuccessful wars with the Indian rulers. Their campaigns were often limited to the destruction of several cities, taking tribute and a large number of slaves. On the other hand, the presence of a strong enemy in the west led to the need to consolidate Indian cities and tribes. And so in the spring of 327, Alexander crossed the border of India. The reason for the war was an internecine war between two Indian rulers - the king of India Porus and the ruler of the city of Taxila, who was formally subordinate to him. True, “Shah-name” gives a slightly different version of the reason that prompted Alexander to the Indian campaign. According to Ferdowsi, Darius, who fled to the city of Kirman, asks the allied king Fur (Por) for help, and he sets up his army against Alexander. Thus, the Indian campaign is justified; it is a response to Porus’ support for the defeated Persian king. This version is most likely incorrect, since there is a significant time gap between the death of Darius and the Indian campaign. But this legend shows how Alexander tried to justify to the Greeks and Persians the need to go to India.
Alexander the Great and Porus. Unknown artist
The hike was difficult. On the Hydaspes River (a tributary of the Indus), with great difficulty he defeated the army of Porus. It was in this battle that European troops first encountered war elephants. And although Porus’ army had only 200 war elephants, their appearance had such a terrifying effect on Alexander’s army that victory was achieved only by chance. Alexander planned to continue his journey further - to cross the low watershed between the Indus and the Ganges and descend into the poorly protected Ganges valley. However, the army was categorical, mutiny and open rebellion were brewing - the soldiers were exhausted in battle and suffered from tropical diseases. And on the Gifanis River (modern Bias, an eastern tributary of the Indus), fearing a rebellion, Alexander was forced to give the order to return. To return, the army was divided into three parts, one of which went by sea under the leadership of Nearchus, the other, under the leadership of Alexander himself, followed the land route through Gedrosia, the third Macedonian sent with the commander Craterus through Arachosia.
Alexander returned to Babylon, the city which he made his capital. According to the testimony of Greeks close to the court, in the last days of his life the great commander indulged in unbridled orgies. Persian legends say that beauties from all over Persia were collected into his harem. Many modern historians, without denying such orgies in principle, argue that Alexander, nevertheless, was preparing for new campaigns, but the Greek and Eastern nobility around him no longer wanted to fight, and in the process of preparing for their next campaign in June 323 Alexander was poisoned by those close to him. After his death, the huge power he created fell apart into several large states formed in Syro-Palestine, Asia Minor, Mesopotamia and Persia.
Alexander’s dizzying success, according to the writings of Macedonian’s contemporaries and later novels, was facilitated by the fact that Darius III was a cruel and arrogant ruler who antagonized the peoples of the provinces subject to the Persians with mass executions. Literary “novels about Alexander” say that Darius III had a certain vizier, who, out of revenge for the brother Darius III killed by his father, deliberately pitted Darius against the subject tribes.
It is curious that later Indian historical treatises indicated that during the time of Alexander, the ruler was Chandragupta, whose name is a tracing of the name Alexander. Alexander's fame was so great that a certain capable Indian military leader took the name Alexander to emphasize his exclusivity and claim to the title of king, the unifier of India. Chandragupta's kingdom was much smaller than Alexander's, but he lived a long life. After the death of Alexander, Seleucus I Nicator, who ruled in Persia, tried to subjugate the Indus Valley and thus complete the conquests begun by Alexander, but Chandragupta managed to defend the independence of his kingdom, and in 305 an agreement was concluded between Seleucus and Chandragupta, according to which the rulers of the Greco-Persian kingdom renounced their claims to Indian lands conquered by Alexander. Chandragupta did what Alexander failed - he subjugated almost the entire Ganges valley, and in addition, became the founder of the new Indian Mauryan dynasty. This period is considered the heyday of Indian culture, literature, and architecture. It was then that India joined world trade and became an important subject of world political life. Goods exported from India, such as spices, ivory and gold, were considered luxury goods in Europe and Asia.
This is the story of the victories of Alexander the Great and his search for India. But, in addition to the facts, many legends are associated with the name of Alexander, with which his biography has become overgrown. For two thousand years, “Alexandrias” - novels about Alexander - were created in various regions conquered by Alexander. According to ancient literary tradition, all these novels go back to the unsurvived novel of Callisthenes, Aristotle's nephew and Alexander's personal physician. Indeed, some of Callisthenes’ notes could form the basis of the text of Alexandria, but later its text was processed by another author. The fact is that the historical Callisthenes was accused of knowing about the conspiracy against Alexander, but did not inform on the conspirators, and was either tortured and hanged, or died as a prisoner during the Indian campaign. But in ancient times, a certain laudatory work by Callisthenes was known, which describes the victories of Alexander from the crossing of the Dardanelles to the battle of Gaugamela, that is, the period of time when Callisthenes was still a friend and close associate of Alexander.
Other sources suggest that the Alexandria is based on biographies of Alexander written by his confidants Cleitarchus and Onesicritus. Modern literary scholars are critical of this information and suggest that novels about Alexander began to appear somewhat later - in the 1st–3rd centuries, during the era of the decline of the Roman Empire, when there was a need to turn to the legacy of the great figures of the past. Later, in the 4th century, the Roman emperors Caracalla and Alexander Severus deified Alexander the Great and introduced his cult throughout the Roman Empire.
One way or another, these novels became widespread in the countries that were part of Alexander’s empire. Over time, they were translated from Greek into Arabic, and on their basis, many retellings of “Iskander” appeared within the Arabic and Persian literary traditions - in Arabic the name Alexander sounds like Iskander. Alexander’s fame in ancient times and the Middle Ages was so great that “Alexandria” gained popularity in countries that never belonged to Alexander’s empire, for example in Great Britain and Western Europe, as well as in Rus'. In total, there are more than 20 translations of the novel, the most important of which are Latin (French and Scottish translations came from it), Middle Persian, Arabic, Syriac, Armenian, Ethiopian, Coptic (New Egyptian) and Serbian. The Russian version of “Alexandria” is a retelling of the Serbian translation. From “Alexandry” and “Iskandery” we know many real and fantastic facts from his biography. The most mysterious and mysterious ones date back to his short stay in India. Moreover, in the popular consciousness, many real facts are reinterpreted and become myths. So, according to one version, Alexander the Great did not die, but was ascended to heaven. According to this legend, having conquered all of India, Alexander ordered the Indian sages to build a flying ship because he wanted to look at the lands he conquered from a bird's eye view. Such a ship was built, and Alexander took it into the skies, where he remained. People who believe in UFOs see in this legend echoes of a possible visit to Earth by aliens. Indeed, the description of the Earth in such a flight is slightly reminiscent of the takeoff of a spaceship. However, the very presence of such a detailed description of the journey to heaven suggests that the “balloonists” returned safely to Earth, otherwise there would be no story about what they could see in the sky.
In eastern miniatures, Alexander was often depicted wearing a horned helmet, which is why he is mentioned in the Koran (18:82), and then in Arab culture under the nickname Zul-Qarnain (two-horned). This nickname stuck with him in Iskanderiya. According to the Koranic legend, Zul-Qarnain was under the protection of Allah, and in one of his conversations with God he spoke about himself like this: “I know that you grew two horns on my head so that I could destroy with them all the kingdoms of the world.” It is curious that in the East many rulers were depicted with horns on their heads. Such an image was supposed to symbolize that the ruler was the bearer of the idea of fertility, a living deity of fertility. The oldest image of a “horned” ruler known to scientists is a stele depicting the ruler of the 3rd millennium BC. e. Akkadian king Naram-Sin. In addition, the Arabs who lived at the time of Alexander to the south of his empire really wanted to be considered the heirs of this ruler, therefore, already among the early Arab historians, Iskander Zul-Qarnain is considered the ruler of Arabia or Yemen, while the historical Alexander never visited Arabia. Moreover, many “Iskanderiyas” consider Iskander a direct descendant of the forefather Ibrahim.
The medieval Byzantine “Alexandria” saw in Alexander the first Christian, allegedly professing Christianity more than 300 years before Jesus. Even in the chapter “Shah-name” dedicated to Iskander by the Persian poet Ferdowsi it is said that a “loving cross” was inscribed on Iskander’s banner. Arab historians, following the same logic, argued that Iskander professed the Hanafi faith, which was given to the Arabs by their forefather Ibrahim (Abraham), known, according to the Koran, as the builder of the Kaaba. Other Arab historians tend to consider him a prophet equal to Ibrahim.
Another Koranic legend claims that it was Allah who “strengthened him for every task” and granted him three victorious campaigns, in one of which “he reached the sunset and found that it was setting into a hot spring, and a certain people found it near it,” on the second (northern) campaign, he conquered all the tribes up to “the place between two ramparts and went on the other side against the people who knew almost no human speech,” while on the third campaign, “he reached the sunrise and found that it was rising above the people, to which we [Allah] have given no cover other than it [the sun." Interpreters of the Koran explain the last text as follows: this people have neither houses, nor courtyards, nor clothes that could protect them from the scorching rays of the sun, this people, they continue, are bestial, and they perform all their functions in public. This last description accurately, although rather arrogantly, describes the Dravidians of South India, living on the eastern coast of Hindustan, their skin really black, as if scorched by the sun, their dwellings hidden in the thickets of tropical forests so securely that one would think they were getting by completely without houses, and the orgiastic cults and promiscuity common in their culture were savagery and ignorance for Muslims.
The prototype of Iskander’s mythical northern campaign was the very real campaign of Alexander to Central Asia, but in the retelling of the Arab and Persian “Iskanderiyas” it acquired fantastic features. So, in the northern campaign, Iskander, by order of Allah, builds a rampart of iron and bronze against the mythical people of Yajuj and Majuj (descendants of Yaphet, the third son of Nuh-Noah, analogues of the biblical peoples Gog and Magog). These people, only a cubit tall, have ears so huge that they sleep on one and cover themselves with the other. These dwarfs feed on weeds and all other grass; penetrating into Muslim countries, they, like locusts, devour trees with branches and leaves. According to Islamic beliefs, before the Last Judgment, a leader named Inshaullah will be born among their people and they will break through the rampart built by Zul-Qarnain, eat all the food in Muslim countries, drink all the fresh water, and then the angel Israfil will sound the beginning of the Last Judgment.
Judging by the Persian Iskanderiya, Alexander’s Indian campaign was much more effective than in real history. According to this text, Iskander completely subjugated not only India, but also China and Tibet. Having reached the Far Sea (Pacific Ocean), he turns north and conquers Siberia. Having reached the North Pole, he, accompanied by 4,000 warriors, enters the Land of Eternal Darkness. In this country he is trying to find a source of living water, which gives immortality to the living and revives the dead. However, after 18 days of fruitless searches, Alexander was forced to leave this country. It is interesting that one of the early Persian authors of Iskanderiya, Abu Ali Muhammad ibn Muhammad Balami (died in 996, finished writing Iskanderiya no later than 963), tells this legend differently: from Central Asia, Alexander invades India and Tibet , and then goes to the extreme west of the Old World - to the Maghreb, and it is there that he tries to find the source of immortality.
Particular attention is paid in “Alexandria” to Alexander’s conversations with the gymnosophists (literally, “naked sages”) - this is how the Greeks called Indian yogis and Brahmins because they walked naked, considering the lack of clothing to be one of the aspects of asceticism. According to the Persian “Iskanderiya”, the son of Iskander from the Persian princess Roushanak, who bore the same name as his father, became not a king, but a hermit yogi.
Not only the commander himself, but also the people close to him became surrounded by legends. One of the later legends tells about Alexander’s personal cook named Glaucus, who, on an Indian campaign, heard from the Brahmin sages the secret of the “herb of immortality.” Glaucus ate this grass and became immortal. Alexander, who learned about this, also wished to become immortal and ordered Glaucus to get this herb for him, but Glaucus could not fulfill this demand, and Alexander ordered the cook to be tied up and thrown into the sea. Since Glaucus ate the “grass of immortality,” he did not die, but turned into a water demon, to whose machinations the historically reliable difficulties of the voyage of Nearchus’s fleet from India to Mesopotamia are attributed.
Another unusual area of historiography is also associated with the name of Alexander the Great. In 1947, the English historian and cultural scientist Arnold Toynbee published a short article “If Alexander had not died then,” which marked the beginning of a new direction called “alternative history.” Authors working in this direction view history not as an integral and unchanging process, but as a sequence of choices made by nations, states and individual rulers. Each such significant choice entails irreversible changes in society and world politics. Toynbee suggested that if Alexander had not died in the summer of 323 BC. e. in Babylon, he could create a worldwide empire, conquering the entire Old World from Gibraltar to China.
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ALEXANDER THE GREAT (MACEDONIAN)(356–323 BC), king of Macedonia, founder of the world Hellenistic power; the most famous commander of antiquity. Born at the end of July 356 BC. in Pella, the capital of Macedonia. Son of the Macedonian king Philip II (359–336 BC) and Olympias, daughter of the Molossian king Neoptolemus. He received an aristocratic upbringing at the Macedonian court; studied writing, mathematics, music and playing the lyre; acquired extensive knowledge in the field of Greek literature; especially loved Homer and tragedians. In 343–340 BC. in Mieza (a Macedonian city on the Strymon River) he listened to lectures on ethics, politics, and natural science by the philosopher Aristotle, who was specially invited to him. From a young age he showed a strong-willed character and prudence; had great physical strength; he tamed the restive horse Bucephalus, which no one could curb - this horse became his constant companion in all military campaigns.
In 340 BC, when Philip II, having gone to war with Perinthos, a Greek city on the European shore of the Propontis (modern Sea of Marmara), entrusted fourteen-year-old Alexander with government, he showed a gift for leadership, decisively suppressing the uprising of the Mede tribe in Northern Paeonia . At the age of sixteen, he played a key role in the Macedonian victory over the Greeks at Chaeronea (Boeotia) on August 2, 338 BC, which led to the establishment of Macedonian hegemony in Hellas (). Successfully carried out a diplomatic mission to Athens, one of the main centers of anti-Macedonian resistance, offering the Athenians honorable peace terms; was awarded Athenian citizenship.
Came into conflict with Philip II after his divorce from Olympias and fled to Illyria. Through the mediation of the Corinthian, Demarata reconciled with his father and returned to Pella. However, their relationship deteriorated again when Philip II opposed Alexander's marriage to Ada, the daughter of the influential and wealthy Carian king Pixodarus, and expelled his closest friends from Macedonia.
The first years of government.
After the murder of his father in the spring of 336 BC. (to which, according to one version, he was involved) became the Macedonian king with the support of the army; destroyed potential contenders for the throne - his half-brother Karan and cousin Aminta. Having learned that many Greek city-states refused to recognize him as the hegemon of Hellas, in the early summer of 336 BC. moved to Greece, achieved his election as the head of the Thessalian League and the Delphic Amphictyony (a religious union of the states of Central Greece) and submission from Athens and Thebes. He convened in Corinth a congress of the Panhellenic (Pan-Hellenic) League created by Philip II, at which, on his initiative, it was decided to start a war against the Achaemenid power (); to lead it, he was appointed strategist-autocrator (supreme military leader) of Hellas. There, his famous meeting with the Cynic philosopher Diogenes took place: in response to Alexander’s question if he had any request, Diogenes asked the king not to block the sun for him. Upon returning to his homeland, he committed in the spring of 335 BC. a victorious campaign against the mountain Thracians, Triballians and Illyrians, ensuring the security of the northern borders of Macedonia.
A false rumor about the death of Alexander in Illyria caused a widespread anti-Macedonian uprising in Greece, led by the Thebans. Having interrupted his northern campaign, he quickly invaded Central Greece and took Thebes by storm; Some of the inhabitants were killed, the survivors (more than 30 thousand) were sold into slavery, and the city was razed to the ground. The remaining policies, frightened by the fate of Thebes, submitted to Alexander.
Persian campaign.
Conquest of Asia Minor.
Having distributed all the property to his entourage and warriors and entrusted the administration of Macedonia to the strategist Antipater, in the spring of 334 BC. At the head of a small Greek-Macedonian army (about 30 thousand infantry and 5 thousand horsemen), Alexander crossed the Hellespont (modern Dardanelles) into Asia Minor and entered the Achaemenid Empire. At the beginning of June, he defeated the sixty-thousand-strong army of the Asia Minor Persian satraps in the battle on the Granik River (modern Bigachay), showing great personal courage, and captured the Hellespont Phrygia and Lydia. His power was voluntarily recognized by almost all Greek cities on the western coast of Asia Minor, in which he overthrew the pro-Persian oligarchic and tyrannical regimes and established a democratic system; he had to take only Miletus and Halicarnassus by force. After the subjugation of Caria, where Alexander took advantage of the power struggle of local aristocratic groups, the entire western part of Asia Minor was in his hands.
In winter 334/333 BC moved along the southern coast of the peninsula and conquered Lycia and Pamphylia, and then turned north and invaded the interior of Asia Minor. Having defeated the Pisids, he occupied Phrygia; According to legend, in Gordia, the ancient Phrygian capital, with a blow of a sword he cut the tangled knot that held together the chariot of the mythical king Midas - there was a belief that whoever untied it would become the ruler of the world.
Despite the Persians' attempt to prevent the further advance of the Macedonians by transferring hostilities to the Aegean basin (the capture of the islands of Chios and Lesbos), Alexander continued his campaign deep into the Persian state. He crossed Paphlagonia and Cappadocia without hindrance, crossed the Taurus ridge through the Cilician Gate pass and subjugated Cilicia. Summer 333 BC the conquest of Asia Minor was completed.
Conquest of Syria, Phenicia, Palestine and Egypt.
In the autumn of 333 BC a huge army (more than 200 thousand) of the Persian king Darius III Kodoman (336–330 BC) advanced to Cilicia and occupied the city of Issus. Not far from it on the river. Pinar On November 12, a battle took place in which Alexander, with only 60 thousand infantry and 5-7 thousand horsemen, won a brilliant victory over the Persians; The richest booty was captured, the mother, wife, young son and two daughters of Darius III were captured. Alexander gave the royal family an honorable position and generously endowed his army. The victory at Issus made him ruler of the entire Western Asian Mediterranean.
Having abandoned the pursuit of Darius III, who had managed to flee beyond the Euphrates, Alexander headed south in order to cut off the Persians from the Mediterranean Sea, prevent their contacts with anti-Macedonian circles in Greece and gain a foothold in the conquered territories. Most of the cities of Phenicia (Arvad, Byblos, Sidon, etc.) submitted to him, which deprived the Persians of the Phoenician fleet and the hope of conducting active naval operations in the Eastern Mediterranean. Only Tire refused to allow the Macedonians into its walls. In July-August 332 BC. after a difficult seven-month siege, the city fell; its defenders were exterminated, and those who took refuge in the temples were sold into slavery. At the same time, Alexander's military leaders finally broke the Persian resistance in the Aegean: they defeated enemy troops in the west of Asia Minor, destroyed the Persian fleet at the Hellespont and captured the entire island of Greece. Military successes allowed Alexander to reject, contrary to the advice of the elderly commander Parmenion, the peace proposals of Darius III, who promised to give him part of the Persian state and the hand of one of his daughters.
Having taken Tire, the Greek-Macedonian army entered Palestine. The Samaritans recognized Alexander's power, but Judea and the southern Palestinian city of Gaza remained loyal to the Persians. The capture and defeat of Gaza by the Macedonians, however, forced the Jewish elite to submit; at the same time, Judea managed to maintain political autonomy and even receive tax breaks.
In December 332 BC. Alexander took possession of Egypt without hindrance (). In Memphis, the ancient Egyptian capital, he was proclaimed pharaoh. He pursued a flexible policy towards the local population: he showed respect to Egyptian temples in every possible way and tried to observe native customs. He left the civil administration of the country to the Egyptians, but transferred the army, finances and border areas under the control of the Macedonians and Greeks. In the Nile Delta he founded Alexandria, which became a stronghold of Greco-Macedonian influence in Egypt (he was personally involved in planning the new city). Made an expedition to the oasis of Siwa in the desert west of the Nile, where the sanctuary of the supreme Egyptian god Ammon, whom the Greeks identified with Zeus, was located; the temple oracle declared him the son of Ammon. However, he had to abandon his intention to make the idea of \u200b\u200bdivine origin the basis of his political propaganda, since it was met with hostility by his circle; An opposition led by Parmenion began to form in the Macedonian army.
Conquest of Mesopotamia and Iran.
In the spring of 331 BC Alexander moved to Phenicia, where he suppressed the Samaritan uprising. Planning to create New Macedonia, which would defend Palestine from nomads and guard the trade route along the eastern bank of the Jordan to South Arabia, he founded several cities in the north of Transjordan (Dion, Gerasa, Pella), populating them with his veterans and Greek-Macedonian colonists. In order to acquire rights to the Persian throne, he married Barsina, a relative of Darius III. In September 331 BC, with 40 thousand infantry and 7 thousand horsemen, he crossed the Euphrates at Thapsak, then across the Tigris at the ruins of the ancient Assyrian capital of Nineveh and on October 1 completely defeated the Persian army near the village of Gavgamela, which, according to data, numbered ancient historians, up to 1 million people. The military power of the Persian state was broken; Darius III fled to Media. The satrap of Babylonia, Mazeus, opened the gates of Babylon to the Macedonians; Alexander made generous sacrifices to the Babylonian gods and restored the temples destroyed by Xerxes (486–465 BC). In December 331 BC. The satrap of Susiana, Abulit, surrendered to him Susa (the official capital of the Achaemenid state) and the state treasury. Having defeated the Persian satrap Ariobarzanes, Alexander captured Persepolis, the dynastic seat of the Achaemenids, and the personal treasury of Darius III; as punishment for the Hellenic shrines desecrated by Xerxes during the Greco-Persian wars, he gave the city to be plundered by soldiers. At the end of May 330 BC. set the luxurious royal palace in Persepolis on fire. On the other hand, he actively pursued a policy of rapprochement with the local Persian aristocracy, giving them high positions in the administration; retained the control of Babylonia and Susiana for Mazeus and Abulite, and appointed the noble Persian Frasaortes as satrap of Persia.
In June 330 BC. moved to the central regions of Iran. Darius III fled to the east, and the Macedonians, unopposed, occupied Media and its main city of Ecbatana. Here Alexander released the Greek warriors to their homeland, emphasizing with this act that the pan-Greek war against the Achaemenid power was over and that from that moment he began a campaign as the “king of Asia.”
Conquest of Central Asia.
Pursuing Darius III, Alexander passed the Caspian Gate pass and entered Central Asia. In this situation, the local satraps Bessus and Barsaent plotted against Darius III; they took him into custody, and when the Macedonians overtook the retreating Persians, they stabbed him to death (late June - early July 330 BC); Bessus fled to his satrapy (Bactria and Sogdiana) and, citing his kinship with the Achaemenids, proclaimed himself the new Persian king Artaxerxes IV. Alexander ordered Darius III to be solemnly buried in Persepolis and declared himself an avenger of his death. Having passed through Parthia, Hyrcania, Aria and defeated the satrap of Aria Satibarzan, he captured Drangiana and, having overcome the Paropamis mountain range (modern Hindu Kush), invaded Bactria; Bess retreated beyond the river. Oxus (modern Amu Darya) to Sogdiana.
In the spring of 329 BC Alexander crossed the Oxus; Sogdian aristocrats gave him Bessus, whom he sent to kill the relatives of Darius III. The Macedonians occupied Marakanda, the main city of Sogdiana, and reached the river. Yaxartes (modern Syr Darya). However, soon the Sogdians, led by Spitamen, rebelled against the conquerors; they were supported by the Bactrians and the Saki nomads. For two years, Alexander tried to suppress the anti-Macedonian movement with the most severe measures. He managed to win over the Saks. In 328 BC Spitamenes fled to the Massagetae, who, fearing reprisals from the Macedonians, killed him. In 327 BC. Alexander captured Sogdian Rock - the last center of the uprising. As a sign of reconciliation with the local nobility, he married Roxana, the daughter of the Bactrian nobleman Oxyartes. To strengthen his power in this region, he founded the city of Alexandria Eskhatu (Extreme; modern Khojent) on Yaxartes and conquered the mountainous country of Paretaken southwest of Sogdiana. ( Cm. AFGHANISTAN).
After the capture of Mesopotamia, Alexander, trying to ensure the loyalty of the conquered regions, increasingly entered into the image of an eastern ruler: he tried to establish the idea of \u200b\u200bhis divine origin, established a magnificent court ritual, started a harem of three hundred concubines, observed Persian customs and wore Persian clothes. The separation of the king from the Macedonians caused severe irritation among the soldiers, who were already dissatisfied with the continuation of the difficult campaign, as well as some of his associates, mainly immigrants from Lower Macedonia. In the autumn of 330 BC Philotas' plot to kill the king was discovered; by decision of the Macedonian army, the conspirators were stoned; Alexander also ordered the death of Parmenion, Philotas' father. In order to remove the most potentially rebellious part from the army, he sent home veterans and soldiers unfit for further service.
During the uprising in Sogdiana, his relations with the Greek-Macedonian environment became even more strained. Summer 328 BC At a feast in Maracanda, Alexander killed one of his closest friends, Cleitus, who publicly accused him of neglecting his compatriots. There was a strengthening of autocratic tendencies, the ideological basis of which was the concept of the permissiveness of the monarch, formulated by the court philosopher Anaxarchus. Alexander's attempt to introduce the Persian rite of proskynesis (prostration to the monarch) became the reason for a new conspiracy drawn up by young Macedonian aristocrats from the king's personal guard ("conspiracy of the pages"); their ideological inspirer was the philosopher and historian Callisthenes, a student of Aristotle. Only chance saved Alexander from death; the conspirators were stoned to death; Callisthenes, according to one version, was executed, according to another, he committed suicide in prison.
Trip to India.
Fascinated by the idea of reaching the “edge of Asia” and becoming the ruler of the world, Alexander decided to undertake a campaign to India. At the end of spring 327 BC, setting out from Bactra, he crossed Paropamis and the river. Kofen (modern Kabul). Most of the kingdoms on the right bank of the Indus, including the strong state of Taxila, voluntarily submitted to him; their rulers retained their power and political autonomy, but were forced to agree to the presence of Macedonian garrisons in their cities. Having defeated the Aspasians and Assakens (Indian Asawaks), Alexander crossed the Indus and invaded Punjab, where he encountered fierce resistance from King Porus (Indian Paurava), who owned a vast territory between the rivers Hydaspes (modern Jhelum) and Akesina (modern Chenab) . As a result of the bloody battle on the Hydaspes (late April - early May 326 BC), Porus' army was defeated, and he himself was captured. Alexander became master of Punjab. In an effort to make Porus an ally, he not only left him his possessions, but also significantly expanded them. Having founded the cities of Nicaea and Bucephalia on the Hydaspes (in honor of his deceased horse), he moved east: crossing the river. Hydraot (modern Ravi), conquered the Katai and approached the river. Hyphasis (modern Sutlej), intending to invade the Ganges valley. However, the soldiers rebelled - they were tired of the endless campaign, had a hard time enduring the natural and climatic conditions of India, and they were frightened by the prospect of a war with the powerful state of the Nandas. Alexander had to turn back and give up his dream of world domination. He effectively gave up control of the lands east of the Indus, handing it over to local rulers.
At the Hydaspes, the land army met the Macedonian fleet under the command of Nearchus and together with it moved towards the Indian Ocean. During the campaign, Alexander carried out a successful military expedition against the Malli and Oxidraks (Ind. Shudraka), who lived east of Hydraot, and subjugated the regions of Musicana, Oxican and Samba. At the end of July 325 BC. reached Patala (modern Bahmanabad) and the Indus delta.
Return to Babylonia.
In September 325 BC. led an army to Persia along the ocean coast; the fleet was tasked with exploring the coastal sea route from the mouth of the Indus to the mouth of the Tigris and Euphrates. During the transition through Hydrosia (modern Baluchistan), the Macedonians suffered greatly from lack of water and food and from heavy rains. Only in November did they reach Pura, the administrative center of Hydrosia. When the army crossed Karmania (modern Kerman and Hormozgan), it turned into a disorderly and demoralized crowd. At the beginning of 324 BC. Alexander arrived at Pasargadae and then went to Susa, where he celebrated the end of the campaign (February 324 BC).
Having completed the campaign, he set about organizing his huge power, which included Greece, Macedonia, Thrace, Asia Minor, Syria, Palestine, Egypt, Libya, Mesopotamia, Armenia, Iran, Central Asia and North-West India. He tried to take harsh measures to combat the abuses of Macedonian and Persian officials. He continued the policy of merging multilingual tribes into one whole; sought to create a single elite from the Greco-Macedonian and Persian elite. Ordered ten thousand Macedonian soldiers to marry women of local origin; married about eighty of his entourage to Persian aristocrats. He himself married Stateira, the daughter of Darius III, and Parysatis, the daughter of Artaxerxes III Ochus (358–338 BC), legitimizing himself as the heir of the Achaemenids. Wanting to dilute the purely Macedonian composition of the guard, he actively enrolled noble Iranians into it; organized a special native corps, which included thirty thousand young men from the eastern regions of his empire. This increased the discontent of the Macedonian soldiers, which generous cash payments could not repay. In 324 BC in Opis (on the Tigris), where Alexander arrived with part of the army, the soldiers, having learned about his decision to dismiss veterans and those unfit for service, started a rebellion, which he managed to pacify with great difficulty.
To strengthen their power in Greece (especially after the unsuccessful campaign of the Macedonian commander Zopyrion in the Northern Black Sea region and the anti-Macedonian uprising in Thrace) in the summer of 324 BC. issued a decree on the return of all political emigrants (except for the enemies of Macedonia) to the Greek policies and on the restoration of their property rights. Seriously limited the powers of the Achaean, Arcadian and Boeotian unions (and maybe even completely dissolved them). He achieved recognition from the Greek states as the son of Zeus-Ammon; sanctuaries of Alexander began to be built in Hellas.
In winter 324/323 BC conducted his last campaign - against the Cossians (Kassites), who carried out predatory raids on Mesopotamia. After its successful completion, he took the army to Babylon, where he began to prepare for a campaign to the west: he intended to defeat Carthage, capture Sicily, North Africa and Spain and reach the Pillars of Hercules (the modern Strait of Gibraltar). He also developed plans for military expeditions around the Hyrcanian (modern Caspian) Sea and to the south of the Arabian Peninsula; The collection of the fleet and army had already been announced. However, at the beginning of June 323 BC, having attended a feast with his friend Media, he fell ill: perhaps he caught a cold and got pneumonia, complicated by tropical malaria; there is a version that he was poisoned by Iola, the son of Antipater, who was going to be deprived of his position as governor of Macedonia. Managed to say goodbye to the army and on June 13, 323 BC. died in his Babylonian palace; he was only thirty-three years old. The king's body was transported by one of his confidants, Ptolemy Lagus, the ruler of Egypt, to Memphis and then to Alexandria.
Alexander's personality is woven from contradictions. On the one hand, he is a brilliant commander, a courageous soldier, a widely educated person, a fan of literature and art; on the other, an immensely ambitious man, the strangler of Greek freedom, a cruel conqueror, an autocratic despot who considered himself a god. The historical significance of Alexander's activities: although the power he created collapsed soon after his death, his conquests marked the beginning of the Hellenistic era; they created the conditions for the Greco-Macedonian colonization of the Near East and Central Asia and for intense cultural interaction between Hellenic and Eastern civilizations.
Both sons of Alexander - Hercules (from Barsina) and Alexander IV (from Roxana) - died during the wars of the Diadochi (Alexander's generals who divided his Empire): Hercules was killed in 310 BC. by order of the imperial regent Polysperchon, Alexander IV in 309 BC. by order of the ruler of Macedonia, Cassander.
Ivan Krivushin
Alexander the Great is one of the few ancient figures to whom we turn in a modern cultural context. Alexander’s activities are in many ways reminiscent of some episodes in the modern history of Western countries. For example, its campaigns in Afghanistan and Iraq are very similar to Western interventions in these regions that have taken place over the past decades. Alexander was the leader of peoples with different histories and cultures. At times his reign was unsuccessful because he did not understand local customs and beliefs. Today, many lessons can be learned from how Alexander tried to build bridges between West and East. These lessons can be used by the creators of modern political strategies in different multicultural regions.
"Greatness" of Alexander
We do not know who and when first called Alexander the Great. This probably did not happen during his lifetime. Historians believe that he was first called the Great in a Roman comedy of the 1st century BC. The name appeared in this comedy Magnum(Latin word meaning 'great'). At some point between his death in 323 BC and the 1st century BC, he began to be regarded as the Great. Most likely, the Romans called it that because they measured the greatness of rulers in the number of corpses: a victorious Roman commander had to kill 5,000 enemies before he was awarded a triumph - a solemn procession through the streets of Rome among an enthusiastic crowd. Alexander cold-bloodedly slaughtered hundreds of thousands of local residents during his campaigns, and in Afghanistan and India he sometimes destroyed entire tribes and committed real genocides. If Alexander were alive today, he would be court-martialed for war crimes, but in Antiquity his military victories, strategic genius, and high body count among his enemies attracted the Romans.
// Portrait of Alexander the Great. National Library of France (gallica.bnf.fr)
Alexander was an extraordinary ruler. Some of his subjects worshiped him as a deity. He died young - at 33, but managed to do a lot. However, greatness was associated precisely with his military career. Alexander was a genius of military strategy and tactics. Wherever he went, he always met an army larger than his own, but he always won. Alexander was a king and combined the functions of a commander, politician, statesman, diplomat and people's leader. But if we consider Alexander as a complete “set” of roles, we can find quite serious failures in their performance.
Raising Alexander
The most important person in Alexander's life was his father, Philip II of Macedon. Philip was a better king than Alexander in terms of what he did for his kingdom. Unlike Alexander, he remained a typical Macedonian warrior until his death. Philip did not conquer such a huge empire as Alexander did, but as a king he fulfilled his duties to the people better than Alexander. Some ancient authors recognized this.
When Philip ascended the throne in 359, Macedonia was a backward country from a social and cultural point of view. It had no economy, no permanent trained army, and was generally in ruins. Philip changed everything. During his 23 years of reign, he created a prepared, terrifying army, which Alexander then led to Asia. It was the best pre-Roman army in the ancient world. Philip II carried out an economic reform that made Macedonia a prosperous kingdom, and then began to expand its borders and eventually took possession of all of Greece. It was Philip who decided to invade the Persian Empire after conquering Greece. In the summer of 336 BC, he was ready to launch an invasion of Greece, but a few days before he was killed. Thus, the plan to invade the Persian Empire did not belong to Alexander - he inherited it from his father and, in order to surpass him, decided to go further than Philip could have imagined. The fact that Philip left a very stable and prosperous kingdom and a powerful army allowed Alexander to achieve all that he achieved.
Alexander had an extraordinary intellect. At the age of 6 or 7 years, he could play the lyre and have conversations with adults on various topics. He read all Greek literature, Homer was his idol. When Alexander was 14–16 years old, he was taught by Aristotle. But Alexander's greatest influence was not Aristotle, but his father, Philip. For most of his life, Alexander wanted to imitate him, and when he grew up and enjoyed his own military successes, he wanted to surpass Philip. Alexander wanted to become Achilles of the 4th century BC.
First steps in politics
When Alexander was 16 years old, Philip made him regent of Macedonia, and he himself went on a campaign against Byzantium. At this time, Alexander marched against the northern tribe on the Strymon River and defeated them. When he was 18, Philip made him commander of the right wing at the Battle of Chaeronea in 338 BC. The freedom of Greece was at stake in this battle. This is one of the most important battles in history. Philip defeated the Greeks in it, and Alexander played an important role in this: he helped destroy the enemy’s left flank, including the Sacred Detachment from Thebes. At age 18, Alexander had already fought in several battles and was clearly groomed as heir to the Macedonian throne. He was ready to invade Persia and build his military reputation, but Philip decided he needed to stay to rule Macedonia and Greece.
// Alexander's Empire at the time of the death of Philip II / wikipedia.org
From this moment there was a radical change in the relationship between Alexander and his father: from this moment on, one can trace the deterioration of the relationship between Philip and Alexander. Alexander began to act behind Philip's back. He told his friends: “As long as my father is alive, I will not do anything great.” In 336 BC, Philip was assassinated, and it is possible that Alexander and his mother, Olympias, were involved in this murder. After Philip's death, Alexander became king and began preparing an invasion of the Persian Empire. He wanted to outshine his father. Historians believe that Philip did not intend to conquer the entire Persian Empire. Perhaps he only intended to annex Asia Minor, while Alexander was clear from the very beginning that he would go further than his father and achieve great success.
Conquest strategy
Alexander never had a final plan of action, although one is vital to any strategy. Strategy, by definition, has a goal: when you invade something, you have to know where to stop, and if you get to that point, you've achieved your goal. Alexander never knew where to stop. He invaded Persia to avenge the suffering of the Greeks during the Persian Wars, and by 330 BC, just four years after a campaign of many thousands of miles, Alexander ended an empire that had lasted for centuries. In 330 BC, he began to call himself king of Asia.
After the conquest of Persia, Alexander's army was going to return home, but Alexander persuaded the soldiers to march on Bactria and Sogdiana (present-day Afghanistan). This became a new phase of the invasion. Now this was Alexander's war, and not revenge for the Greeks, as was the case with Persia. The next three years saw the fiercest battles the Macedonians had ever fought. Bactria and Sogdiana were taken, and then Alexander invaded India. But on the Hydaspes River, which flows on the Punjab plain, Alexander's army rebelled. The warriors believed that they had fought enough and should turn back. This rebellion was a symbol of distrust in Alexander as a commander, military leader and king.
// Empire of Alexander the Great / wikipedia.org
Alexander probably wanted to reach the Ganges. He talked a lot about the peoples who lived there and what this country was like. But it is possible that if he had reached the Ganges, he would have decided to go further. Only the rebellion of the troops forced him to turn home. When Alexander turned back, the army thought it was finally returning to Greece, but he began talking about invading the Arabian Peninsula and plotting an invasion plan. He arrived in Babylon in 323 BC and planned to then invade south into the Arabian Peninsula. But on June 12, 323 BC, on the eve of the invasion, Alexander died. It is believed that if he had survived and conquered the Arabian Peninsula, he would have turned to the Western Mediterranean and Carthage. When it came to land conquests, Alexander could not stop.
King of Asia
As the army advanced east, not only Alexander, but also some of his commanders began to wear Persian costumes, use perfume, add fragrant oils to baths, and so on. The Macedonians were not accustomed to such luxury: they were simple villagers, accustomed to peasant food and village wine, and often wore the same clothes for several days. They did not have any of the grandeur that we have come to associate with the Persian court. After the Battle of Issus in 333 BC, Alexander entered the tent of the great king Darius on the battlefield and saw its luxury: boxes, gold and silver dishes on the tables and thin bedspreads. Then he said: “So this is what it means to be a king!”
Additionally, Alexander made Persian attire part of his daily attire and presented himself accordingly. He combined Macedonian and Persian outfits and displeased both peoples. His people didn't like it because they saw that these "barbarian" outfits had become part of his "uniform", and the Persians felt that he wasn't doing enough because he still wore elements of Macedonian clothing and armor.
// Alexander meets the Indian king Porus, captured in the battle on the Hydaspes River / wikipedia.org
Alexander sincerely struggled with the dilemma he faced: before him, there had not been a single Macedonian king who was also king of Persia. He had no example to follow, to base his rule on, or to understand how to present himself, so every day he was faced with this newness. He took a new title for himself - King of Asia, and began to combine Macedonian and Persian clothing to try to please people in both the West and the East. He could not call himself the great king of Persia, since he had no connection with Ahuramazda, the Zoroastrian god of light, whereas the Achaemenid royal family did. Alexander was a conqueror: he ruled not by the right of blood, but by the right of conquest.
To reconcile people with his rule, he began to invite Persians to government posts and into the army, trying to look like a ruler who unites East and West. Alexander was not an idealist, he did not want to unite all nations - he was a pragmatist and focused on maintaining his position.
The influence of culture on Alexander
In his youth, Alexander read most of Greek literature. He was especially interested in the poetry of Homer and ancient philosophy. When he went to Asia, he took with him philosophers, scientists and historical writers to talk with them and discuss his thoughts. He also took books with him, and we know that when he had read everything, he sent a request to Greece to send him more books. He truly appreciated literature and the fine arts, and patronized court painters, who painted several paintings and portraits of him. Alexander paid tribute to the culture of the places in which he fought, and could be fascinated by their art. When he arrived in Babylon, he immediately set up headquarters in Nebuchadnezzar's palace because that was where the Babylonian Hanging Gardens were located. He entered Babylon through the Ishtar Gate because he had read about it and was looking forward to seeing it. Going through them as a conqueror was important and symbolic.
Personal life
As a child, Alexander was not interested in girls. This aspect of his life worried his parents: there are stories that Philip and Olympias hired prostitutes for their son when he was 14–18 years old, but he refused them. It is believed that he lost his virginity to a woman named Barsina, whom he knew when he was little. But it was only after the Battle of Issus in 333 BC, when one of the commanders brought Barsina to him. Alexander was then 23 years old. Apparently, after this incident he had many love affairs. Alexander and Barsina never got married, but lived together. In 327 BC, Barsina gave birth to a son named Hercules. That same year, Alexander married Roxana of Bactria.
Alexander had several homosexual relationships, the most famous of which was with his friend Hephaestion, whom he had known since childhood. Hephaestion and Alexander were very close. Hephaestion died about a year before Alexander's death. Alexander was heartbroken and felt a huge emptiness in his life. There are many opinions, but the story that Hephaestion and Alexander were lovers is most likely true. It is important that in those days the Greeks did not have such words as “homosexual”, “lesbian” or “bisexuality”. But if we applied them to ancient society, then everyone would have been bisexual. Alexander's army was completely fine with the fact that he spent one night with his wife, Roxana, and the next with Hephaestion.
// Alexander's marriage. Mosaic from Pompeii / wikipedia.
It is likely that some of the tales of his exploits are fictitious, as he was a king of Macedonia who achieved superhuman status during his lifetime through his conquests and battles, and history often paints such men as greater than they actually were. One day, Thalestra, queen of the Amazons, met Alexander and they spent two weeks having sex non-stop. The Amazons were a highly respected tribe of warriors, renowned for their strength and skill as warriors, and were ruled by a queen. Perhaps Alexander's propaganda machine made up the story about him and Thalestra to make him look better. The amount of propaganda associated with Alexander is such that it is difficult to get to the real Alexander hidden behind the legends.
Death of Alexander the Great
Alexander died a few months before he turned 33 years old. There are many conspiracy theories about Alexander's death, but most likely he died of natural causes. Alexander was seriously wounded in India during the assault on the city of Mallov. He was hit with an arrow in the chest, and when the doctor pulled it out, air came out of the wound with blood. It looks a lot like a punctured lung. It took Alexander several weeks to recover, and he was so weak that he had to be carried to the camp. He also suffered other injuries during the campaign, but never abandoned his harsh lifestyle and heavy drinking.
Alexander drank a lot, although he was not an alcoholic. The Macedonians occasionally held drinking parties that could last for several days. In 324 BC there was a famous feast at which Alexander took part in a competition to see who could drink the most. About a dozen people died due to excessive alcohol consumption. The Macedonians drank pure wine, while the Greeks diluted it with water. Alexander drank at feasts, but was never drunk when he went into battle or made a battle plan. When the time came for the feast, he drank without stopping, but then he sobered up and moved on.
After all the wounds that Alexander received in battle, he did not change his lifestyle, and his body simply gave out. Historians think he had alcoholic pancreatitis. One evening, after he had gotten drunk at a feast and was about to go to bed, one of his friends said: “One more!” Alexander returned and was given a jug containing twelve quarts of wine (this is most likely an exaggeration). He drank the entire jug, fell to the ground, his body began to twitch in convulsions, he fell into a semi-comatose state, lost the ability to speak, and died a few days later without regaining his speech. These symptoms are very similar to alcoholic pancreatitis.
Alexander's legacy
Alexander did not leave behind a legal heir: his wife Roxana was pregnant when he died. Only a few weeks later she gave birth to a son, who later became Alexander IV. When Alexander died, the entire command of Babylon - his commanders-in-chief, bodyguards, commanders and satraps - gathered to decide what to do. It was a constitutional crisis: Alexander had no heirs. The commanders-in-chief decided that until Roxana gave birth to a child, Alexander's half-brother, Philip Arrhidaeus, would be king. When Alexander IV was born, he also became king. A dualistic monarchy emerged. The high command divided the empire among themselves.
Perdiccas, the deputy commander-in-chief of the army, gained control of Babylon, which was to become the new capital of the empire, and the rest divided up other lands. Ptolemy took Egypt, where he founded the Ptolemaic dynasty. These people were very ambitious, hated each other, which, most likely, Alexander achieved deliberately: he divided his military leaders so that they would not unite and try to overthrow him. Just a year after his death, his companions, whom we now call diadochi (“successors”), began a series of wars against each other, and this war lasted 40 years. Each of them tried to tear off a larger piece of the empire. During these wars, they used the Macedonian kings Philip III and Alexander IV as hostages and eventually killed them. Three or four decades later, the great kingdoms of the Hellenistic world were formed.
// Division of the power of Alexander the Great after the Battle of Ipsus (301 BC) / wikipedia.org
Alexander was both good and bad. He was bad in the sense that his legacy was the end of the Macedonian Empire, which Philip and Alexander had spent so much effort creating. Also after him, the Mediterranean and Greece were hit by catastrophic forty-year wars, organized by his successors. Alexander had not married before, and he did not have a son who could become an heir. He was a king, and the main task of a king is not only to protect his country, but also to have an heir. He married Roxanne too late and it led to chaos and bloodshed.
The good thing about his reign is that he opened the East to the West like no one before him. As a result, trade and cultural contacts and communications were established between Greece and the Mediterranean, Egypt, Syria, and Bactria in the east. Alexander's conquests made the Greeks realize that they were part of a larger world than just the Mediterranean.
By the Spear. Philip II, Alexander the Great, and the Rise and Fall of the Macedonian Empire (Oxford University Press 2014; paperback November 2017)
Philip II of Macedonia (Yale University Press 2008) / Philip II of Macedonia (Eurasia, 2014)
Demosthenes of Athenes and the Fall of Classical Greece (Oxford University Press 2013)
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