The formation of an Arab state. Ancient states of the Arabian Peninsula Status of women in the country
Saudi Arabia is called the “Land of Two Mosques” because it is home to Mecca and Medina, the two main holy cities of Islam.
Mecca- a center of pilgrimage for Muslims. Non-Muslims are prohibited from entering Mecca. In the center of Mecca is the main and largest Mosque in the world Al-Haram (Sacred, Great) with the main shrine of Islam Kaaba(a Muslim shrine in the form of a cubic building in the courtyard of the Sacred Mosque).
Al-Haram Mosque and Kaaba
Medina is the second holiest city of Islam after Mecca. There is a shrine to the Prophet Muhammad at the Prophet's Mosque, known as the Prophet's Dome, or "green dome", built next to the house of the Prophet Muhammad. The Prophet Muhammad died in Medina in 632.
Prophet Muhammad Mosque
Kingdom of Saudi Arabia borders Jordan, Iraq, Kuwait, Qatar, United Arab Emirates, Oman and Yemen. It is washed in the northeast by the Persian Gulf, and in the west by the Red Sea.
It is a welfare state thanks to its large oil reserves (second largest oil production and exporter in the world after Russia).
State symbols
Flag- approved on March 15, 1973. It is a rectangular green panel with the shahada (Muslim creed): “There is no deity worthy of worship except Allah and Muhammad, His messenger.”
To ensure that the inscription is readable on both sides, the flag is sewn from two identical panels. The sword symbolizes the victories of the country's founder, Abdel-Aziz Ibn Saud.
Coat of arms- emblem of Saudi Arabia. Represents two swords and a palm tree. The palm symbolizes the main tree of Saudi Arabia. The swords symbolize the two families that founded modern Saudi Arabia: the Al Saud family and the Al Sheikh family.
Government structure of the modern state of Saudi Arabia
Form of government- absolute theocratic monarchy (a form of government where religion is at the head of the state. The head of state is the head of the church, who has unlimited supreme state power. Currently, this form of government is established in three countries: the Holy See - the Vatican City State, the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia , Sultanate of Brunei).
Head of State- king.
Head of the government- Prime Minister.
Capital- Riyadh.
Official language- Arabic
Currency- Saudi rial
Largest cities– Riyadh, Jeddah, Mecca, Medina.
Territory– 2,149,000 km².
Population– 26,939,583 people.
State religion– Islam.
Administrative division– 13 provinces.
Economy– the advantage of the economy is the huge reserves of oil and gas and the accompanying processing industry. Export– oil and petroleum products. Import– industrial equipment, food, chemical products, cars, textiles.
Armed forces- ground forces, missile forces, naval forces, royal air force, air defense forces.
Saudi Arabian Navy
Sport– The most popular game is football, as well as volleyball and basketball. Drifting is very popular among young people - the technique of driving a car in a controlled drift.
The government of the country announced that reckless behavior that results in the death of a person in the event of an accident will be considered as premeditated murder and punishable by beheading.
Education– by the end of the 20th century. Saudi Arabia has established a system that provides free education to all citizens, from pre-school to higher education. There are 8 universities, more than 24,000 schools and a large number of colleges and other educational institutions in the country. More than a quarter of the state's annual budget is spent on education. The government provides students with everything they need for their studies: literature and even medical care. The state also sponsors the education of its citizens in foreign universities, mainly in the USA, Great Britain, Canada, Australia, and Malaysia.
Climate- extremely dry.
Culture
The culture is strongly linked to Islam. Five times a day, the muezzin calls devout Muslims to prayer (namaz). Serving another religion, distributing other religious literature, building churches, Buddhist temples, and synagogues is prohibited.
Islam prohibits the consumption of pork and alcohol. Traditional food: grilled chicken, falafel, shawarma, lula kebab, kussa makhshi (stuffed zucchini), unleavened bread (khubz). Various spices and spices are generously added to almost all dishes.
Falafel – deep-fried balls of chopped chickpeas (or beans), sometimes with the addition of beans, seasoned with spices
The main drinks are coffee and tea. Drinking is often ceremonial in nature. Various herbs are usually added to tea. Arabic coffee is famous for its traditional strength. It is drunk in small cups, often with the addition of cardamom. Arabs drink coffee very often.
Clothing: national traditions and canons of Islam - men wear long shirts made of wool or cotton (dishdasha). The traditional headdress is gutra. In cold weather, a bisht, a cape made of camel hair, is worn over the dishdashi.
Women in abaya
Women's traditional clothing is richly decorated with tribal signs, coins, beads, and threads. When leaving home, a Saudi woman is required to cover her body with an abaya and her head with a hijab. Foreign women are also required to wear an abaya (with trousers or a long dress underneath).
Girl in hijab
Public theaters and cinemas are prohibited. Home videos are quite popular. Western-produced films are virtually uncensored.
Status of women in the country
Every adult woman must have a close male relative as her guardian. The guardian makes decisions on behalf of the woman: permission to travel, do business, study at a university or college, work. A woman cannot receive medical care without the permission of her husband or guardian. There is a special electronic system so that the man/guardian can monitor the woman's location.
Men enjoy the unilateral rule of divorce from their wives (talaq) without the need of any legal basis. A woman can only obtain a divorce with her husband's consent or if it is legally proven that her husband is causing her harm. In fact, it is very difficult for a Saudi woman to obtain a legal divorce.
Cultural norms limit a woman's behavior in public. Their observance is monitored by the religious police (mutawa). In restaurants, women must sit in separate sections reserved for families. Women must wear an abaya (a long, loose-fitting dress that covers the entire figure) and cover their hair. Women are prohibited from driving. In 2013, women were allowed to ride motorcycles and bicycles, but only if accompanied by a man/guardian and away from male crowds so as not to “cause aggression” among them.
Men marry girls when they reach the age of ten.
Nature
Flora
Most of the country is a vast desert plateau. In the northern and central parts of the country there are the largest sandy deserts: Big Nefud and Small Nefud (Dekhna), known for their red sands; in the south and southeast - Rub al-Khali (Arabic “empty quarter”) with dunes and ridges in the northern part up to 200 m. White saxaul and camel thorn grow here and there on the sands, lichens on the hamadas, and on lava in the fields - wormwood, astragalus, along the beds of the wadi - single poplars, acacias, and in more saline places - tamarisk; along the coasts and salt marshes there are halophytic shrubs.
camel thorn flower
A significant part of sandy and rocky deserts is almost completely devoid of vegetation. In the Asir Mountains there are areas of savannah where acacias, wild olives, and almonds grow. In the oases there are groves of date palms, citrus fruits, bananas, grain and vegetable crops.
almond tree
Fauna
The fauna of Saudi Arabia is diverse: antelope, gazelle, hyrax, wolf, jackal, hyena, fennec fox, caracal, wild ass, onager, and hare live here.
A caracal is not a lynx. But from the cat family
There are many rodents: gerbils, gophers, jerboas, etc. Many reptiles: snakes, lizards, turtles. Birds include eagles, kites, vultures, peregrine falcons, bustards, larks, hazel grouses, quails, and pigeons. Locusts breed in coastal lowlands.
There are more than 2,000 species of coral in the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf, with black coral being especially prized. 39.64% of the country's area is occupied by 128 protected areas. In the mid-1980s Asir National Park was established, where almost extinct species of wild animals such as the oryx (oryx) and the Nubian ibex are preserved.
UNESCO World Heritage Sites in Saudi Arabia
Madain Salih
A complex of archaeological sites that includes 111 rock burials (1st century BC - 1st century AD), as well as a system of hydraulic structures related to the ancient Nabataean city of Hegra, which was the center of caravan trade.
Diriyah (city)
Palace of Saad ibn Saud in Diriyah
Known for the fact that the Saudis, the ruling dynasty of Saudi Arabia, come from it. From 1744 to 1818, Diriyah was the first capital of the Saudis.
Other attractions of Saudi Arabia
88% of Saudi Arabia's population is concentrated in cities. The largest city and capital of the kingdom, a political, cultural and scientific center - Riyadh.
Modern buildings in Riyadh
There are many skyscrapers in the city, and other grandiose projects are being developed. The tallest building in the city, as well as in the entire kingdom, Burj al-Mamlak is a 99-story skyscraper. The skyscraper houses shops, an observatory at an altitude of 297 meters, apartments, offices, a Four Seasons hotel and even a mosque.
Jeddah
The second largest city in the country. Population 3,400,000 people. One of the attractions of Jeddah is the Tomb of Eve. According to Muslim tradition, it is revered as the burial place of Eve. According to legend, after the Fall, Eve, having fallen to Earth, ended up in the area of Jeddah or Mecca, and Adam ended up in Sri Lanka and left a trace on Adam’s Peak, revered by Buddhists as the trace of Buddha, and by Shaivites as the trace of Shiva.
The grave site was concreted over by the religious authorities of Saudi Arabia in 1975 because... Pilgrims, in violation of Islamic traditions, prayed at the grave after the Hajj season.
Eva's grave, photo 1894
Jeddah has a port on the eastern coast of the Red Sea, which receives the main flow of pilgrims heading for the Hajj to Mecca and Medina. The metro is under construction. The world's tallest skyscraper is planned to be built in the northern part of the city.
Occupying the southern third of the Arabian Peninsula, it is one of the largest deserts in the world. The sand lies on top of gravel or gypsum, the height of the dunes reaches 250 m. The sand is predominantly silicate, from 80 to 90% is quartz, the rest is feldspar, grains of which, coated with iron oxide, color the sands orange and red.
Black stone
This is the eastern cornerstone of the Kaaba, the ancient stone building to which Muslims pray at the center of the Great Mosque in Mecca. It is revered by Muslims as an Islamic relic that dates back to the time of Adam and Eve.
The stone was revered in the Kaaba in pagan pre-Islamic times, 5 years before the first revelation of the prophet Muhammad. It has since been broken into a number of fragments and is now mounted in a silver frame. It is polished by the hands of millions of pilgrims. Islamic tradition holds that he fell from the sky to show Adam and Eve where to build an altar. Although scientists describe it as a meteorite.
Muslim pilgrims fight for the chance to kiss the Black Stone
Mount Arafat
This is a granite hill east of Mecca. It is also known as Mount Mercy. According to Islamic tradition, the hill is the site where the Islamic prophet Muhammad delivered the farewell Sermon on the Mount to the Muslims who accompanied him on the Hajj at the end of his life. Hill 70 m high.
Pilgrims spend the whole day here, begging Allah to forgive their sins and praying for the future. They also collect stones to stone Satan.
National Museum of Saudi Arabia
Founded in 1999. Exhibits are located in eight exhibition halls, or galleries:
Man and the Universe
Arab kingdoms
Pre-Islamic era
Mission of the Prophet (the life and mission of the Prophet Muhammad is illustrated here. On one of the walls there is a large genealogy of the prophet).
Islam and the Arabian Peninsula
First and second Saudi States
Associations
Hajj and the Two Holy Mosques (the main exhibit in this gallery is a large model of Mecca and its environs).
Nassif House
A museum and cultural center that hosts special exhibitions and lectures by historians.
Story
Ancient history
Here is the historical homeland of the Arab tribes. The Arabs assimilated the population of the southern part of the peninsula - the Negroids.
From the beginning of the 1st century. BC e. In the south of the peninsula, the Minaan and Sabaean kingdoms existed, and the most ancient transit cities of the Hijaz - Mecca and Medina - arose here. At the beginning of the 7th century. In Mecca, the prophet Muhammad began to preach Islam. In 622, he moved to the oasis of Yathrib (the future Medina), which became the center of the emerging Arab state.
Mausoleum of Muhammad
Islam
Not all local Jews immediately converted to Islam, and after some time, relations between Arabs and Jews became openly hostile.
In 632, the Arab Caliphate was founded with its capital in Medina, covering almost the entire territory of the Arabian Peninsula. By the time of the reign of the second caliph Umar ibn Khattab (634), all Jews were expelled from the Hijaz. At the same time, a rule arose according to which non-Muslims have no right to live in the Hijaz, and today in Medina and Mecca. As a result of conquests by the 9th century. The Arab state is spread over the entire Middle East, Iran, Central Asia, Transcaucasia, North Africa, as well as Southern Europe (Iberian Peninsula, islands of the Mediterranean Sea).
Middle Ages
By 1574, the Ottoman Empire, led by Sultan Selim II, finally conquered the Arabian Peninsula. The Arabs began to make their first attempts to build their own statehood. The most influential Arab families in the Hejaz at that time were the Sauds and the Rashidis.
First Saudi State
The birth of the state began in 1744 in the central region of the Arabian Peninsula as a result of the unification of the ruler of the city of Ad-Diriyya, Muhammad ibn Saud, and the Islamic preacher Muhammad Abdul-Wahhab. This union marked the beginning of the Saudi dynasty that still rules today. The first Saudi state lasted 73 years - after some time it came under pressure from the Ottoman Empire. In 1817, the Ottoman Sultan sent troops to the Arabian Peninsula under the command of Muhammad Ali Pasha, who defeated the weak army of Imam Abdullah.
Second Saudi State
7 years later (in 1824), the Second Saudi State was founded with its capital in Riyadh. It existed for 67 years and was destroyed by the long-time enemies of the Saudis - the Rashidi dynasty, originally from Hail. The Saud family was forced to flee to Kuwait.
Third Saudi State
In 1902, 22-year-old Abd al-Aziz from the Saud family captured Riyadh, and in 1904 the Rashidis turned to the Ottoman Empire for help, which sent in troops but was defeated. In 1912, Abdel Aziz captured the entire Najd region, and in 1920, using material support from the British, he finally defeated Rashidi. In 1925 Mecca was captured. On January 10, 1926, Abdul Aziz al-Saud was declared King of the Hejaz. A few years later, Abdel Aziz captured almost the entire Arabian Peninsula. On September 23, 1932, Najd and Hejaz were united into one state, called Saudi Arabia. Abdulaziz became king of Saudi Arabia.
The first king of Saudi Arabia, Abd al-Aziz ibn Saud
In 1938, huge oil fields were discovered in Saudi Arabia, but the Second World War began and their development began only in 1946, and by 1949 oil had become the source of wealth and prosperity for the state.
The first king of Saudi Arabia pursued a rather isolationist policy. Before his death in 1953, he left the country only 3 times, although in 1945 Saudi Arabia was among the founders of the UN and the League of Arab States.
Abdel Aziz was succeeded by his son Saud.
King Saud
His domestic policy was not well thought out. This led to a coup d'etat in the country, Saud fled to Europe, and power passed into the hands of his brother Faisal.
Faisal, being a radical politician, made a huge contribution to the development of the country. Under him, the volume of oil production increased, a number of social reforms were carried out in the country, and a modern infrastructure was created. But in 1973, he provoked an energy crisis in the West by demanding the return of Jerusalem and removing Saudi oil from all trading platforms.
But 2 years later he was shot by his own nephew. Under King Khalid, Saudi Arabia's foreign policy became more moderate. After Khalid, the throne was inherited by his brother Fahd, and in 2005 by Abdullah.
On October 4, 2011, there was unrest in the Eastern Province, which is populated mainly by Shiites. Saudi authorities believe that tensions are being escalated from abroad, mainly by Iran.
Saudi Arabia
In the south and southwest of the Arabian Peninsula, on the territory of the modern Yemen Arab and Yemen People's Democratic Republics, in ancient times there existed a number of state entities that were the most important centers of ancient Yemen civilization. The northernmost was Main with the main cities of Jasil and Karnavu. To the south of Main was Saba, with its center in Marib. To the south is Kataban with its capital in Timna. South of Qataban was the state of Ausan, and to the east was Hadhramaut with its capital Shabwa.
The emergence of ancient Yemenite states dates back to the 9th-8th centuries. BC e. In the VI-V centuries. Main, Qataban, Ausan, Hadhramaut and Saba begin to fight for dominance. Its fierce nature is evidenced, for example, by the war of Saba, Qataban and Hadhramaut against Ausan, during which 16,000 Ausanians were killed, its most important cities were destroyed and burned, and the state itself was soon absorbed by Qataban. Main had difficulty holding back the expansion of Saba and Kataban until in the 1st century. BC e. did not become dependent on the latter. Hadhramaut was either part of the Sabaean kingdom, or acted as an independent state, its ally or enemy. In the III-I centuries. BC e. Qataban becomes one of the strongest states in southern Arabia, but already in the 1st century. BC e. he was defeated, and his territory was divided between Saba and Hadhramaut.
The most powerful in the 1st millennium BC. e. there was the Sabaean kingdom, which in its heyday occupied the territory from the Red Sea to Hadhramaut (sometimes including it) and from Central Arabia to the Indian Ocean.
At the end of the Central century. BC e. a new Himyarite state emerged with its capital Zafar, which until that time had been part of Qataban. By the beginning of the 4th century. n. e. it established its hegemony over all of South Arabia. From the middle of the 1st millennium BC. e. and almost until the middle of the 1st millennium AD. e. Arabia was in close, mainly trade, contacts with Greece, Ptolemaic Egypt and the Roman Empire. During the Himyarite period, peaceful relations and military clashes linked the destinies of South Arabia and Aksum (Ethiopia).
Economy.
The economy of the South Arabian states is characterized primarily by the development of irrigated agriculture and nomadic cattle breeding. In agricultural areas, in river valleys, cereals were grown - wheat, spelt, barley, legumes and vegetables. Vineyards were located along the mountain slopes, cultivated in the form of terraces. The territories of the oases were occupied by groves of date palms. The cultivation of fragrant trees, shrubs and spices was of great economic importance. Agriculture was possible only with artificial irrigation, so serious attention was paid to the construction of irrigation structures. The Marib Dam and other extensive structures formed the basis of South Arabian agriculture. A particularly grandiose structure was the Marib Dam (600 m long, more than 15 m high), built in the 7th century. BC e. and lasted thirteen centuries.
Along with agriculture, cattle breeding was developed: cattle, sheep (tail-tailed and fine-wool), and camels were bred. Among the branches of craft, it is necessary to highlight stone processing and construction, mining and processing of metals, pottery production, weaving, and leatherworking.
The specialization of the economy in various natural zones of Arabia, the presence of a number of valuable products (for example, spices and incense), and an advantageous geographical location contributed to the development of trade in several directions at once: exchange between the agricultural and pastoral regions of Arabia; international trade in incense with many countries of the ancient Eastern and ancient world; finally, transit trade with the Middle East in Indian and African goods. Depending on changes in the directions of trade routes, the role of individual South Arabian states changed. At first, Main flourished, holding in its hands the famous “route of incense” and having trading posts all the way to the island of Delos in the Aegean Sea and in Mesopotamia, then Saba, which captured Main and the trade routes into its own hands. Further, Qataban and Hadhramaut established direct contacts with the Tigris-Euphrates valley through the Persian Gulf, and with the coast of East Africa through the Bab-el-Mandeb Strait.
At the end of the 1st millennium BC. e. A number of factors led to severe disruption to the South Arabian economy. One of them is changes in trade routes: the Egyptians, Persians, and Greeks established direct contacts with India; the predominant role began to be played not by land, but by sea trade routes (this was facilitated by the discovery of the effect of constant winds - monsoons, the improvement of navigation techniques, and the increased role of the Persian Gulf compared to the Red Sea). Another factor is climate change towards greater aridity and the encroachment of deserts on fertile oases and agricultural zones. The third is the gradual destruction of irrigation structures, natural disasters that have more than once led to major disasters, for example, to repeated breaches of the Marib Dam. The infiltration of Bedouins into settled agricultural zones increased. The consequences of the long isolation of Arabia from other states of the Ancient East were felt. Along with the complication of the domestic and foreign political situation and constant wars, all this led to the decline of the South Arabian states.
Social and political system of South Arabia.
In the middle of the 2nd millennium BC. e. From the South Arab linguistic and tribal community, large tribal unions began to emerge: Minaean, Kataban, Sabaean. At the end of the 2nd - beginning of the 1st millennium BC. e. As a result of the development of productive forces, production relations began to change. Early class slave-owning societies arose on the territory of ancient Yemen. There was an increase in property inequality, noble families emerged, which gradually concentrated political power in their hands.
Such social groups as the priesthood and merchants were formed.
The main means of production - land - was owned by rural and urban communities, which regulated water supply, carried out redistribution between community members who owned plots of land, paid taxes and performed duties in favor of the state, churches, and community administration. The main economic unit was the large patriarchal family (or large family community). She could own not only a communal plot of land, but also acquire other land, receive it by inheritance, develop new plots, arranging irrigation structures on them: the irrigated land became the property of the one who “revived” it. Gradually, noble families sought to remove their possessions from the system of communal redistribution and started profitable farming on them. Families differed in their property status, and even within the family there was noticeable inequality among its members.
A special category of land consisted of very extensive temple estates. A lot of land was in the hands of the state, and this fund was replenished through conquest, confiscation, and forced purchase of land. The personal fund of lands of the ruler and his family was very significant. The conquered population worked on state lands, performing a number of duties and being, in essence, state slaves. These lands were often given as conditional ownership to the impoverished families of free colonists, along with slaves. Free people, persons dedicated to one or another deity, and temple slaves worked in the temple domains in order to fulfill their duties.
Slaves were mainly recruited from among prisoners of war, acquired through purchase and sale, usually from other areas of the ancient Eastern world (from Gaza, Egypt, etc.). Debt slavery was not widespread. Documents indicate the presence of slaves in private and temple farms, in the household of the ruler and his family. In large patriarchal families they were equated with the younger members of the family. Slaves who belonged to the ruler could sometimes rise to the occasion, take a privileged position among their own kind, and perform administrative functions. But no matter what position the slave occupied, when his name was mentioned, the name of his father and clan was never mentioned, for this was a sign of a free person. Ancient Yemen society was an early slave-owning society, which, however, retained the tribal way of life and traditions, with a gradually developing tendency towards social stratification and an increase in the role of slavery.
The process of formation of an early class society led to the transformation of tribal unions into a state. In the conditions of Arabia, the slow progress of this process contributed not to the radical destruction of the political institutions of the tribal system, but to their adaptation to the new orders of class society, their transformation from tribal to state bodies. The system of political structure of the South Arabian states can be illustrated by the example of the Sabaean kingdom.
It consisted of 6 “tribes”, of which three were privileged, and the other three occupied a subordinate position. Each tribe was divided into large branches, the latter into smaller ones, and they, in turn, into separate clans. The tribes were governed by leaders - cabirs, who came from noble families and formed a collegial body. Perhaps the tribes also had councils of elders.
Privileged tribes chose from representatives of noble families for a certain period of time (in Saba - for 7 years, in Ka-tabak - for 2 years, etc.) eponyms - important officials of the state who performed priestly duties associated with the cult of the supreme god Astara, also carried out astronomical, astrological, calendar observations and some economic functions in organizing land and water use. State and private documents were dated using eponyms, and chronology was kept. Eponyms took office at the age of 30 and upon expiration of their term of office were included in the council of elders.
The highest officials who had executive power and administered the Sabaean state were until the 3rd-2nd centuries. BC e. mukarribs. Their functions included economic, mainly construction, activities, sacred duties (performing sacrifices, arranging ritual meals, etc.), government activities (periodic renewal of tribal unions, publication of state documents, legal acts, establishment of boundaries of urban areas, private estates, etc. .d.). The position of mukarrib was hereditary.
During the war, the mukarribs could assume the functions of leadership of the militia, and then they received the title “malik” - king for a while. Gradually, the Mukarribs concentrated the prerogatives of royal power in their hands, and at the end of the 1st millennium BC. e. their position actually turned into a royal one.
The supreme body of the Sabaean state was the council of elders. It included the Mukarrib and representatives of all 6 Sabaean "tribes", with the unprivileged tribes entitled to only half representation. The Council of Elders had sacred, judicial and legislative functions, as well as administrative and economic functions. Other South Arabian states had approximately similar arrangements.
Gradually, in the South Arabian states, along with tribal division, territorial division arose. It was based on cities and settlements with adjacent rural districts, which had their own autonomous system of government. Each Sabaean citizen belonged to one of the blood-related tribes and at the same time was part of a certain territorial unit.
Ancient Arabia occupied the Arabian Peninsula and, in natural terms, was a desert, with more or less suitable areas for living and farming located in the south and southwest of the peninsula.
Tribes and states of Northern Arabia
Note 1
The isolation of the Arabian tribes from the civilizational centers of Egypt and Mesopotamia determined the originality and specificity of the historical development of ancient Arabian communities.
The vast territory of the Syrian-Mesopotamian steppe and Northern Arabia was inhabited by nomadic tribes of the Aribs, Kedreans, Nabataeans, and Thamuds. Their main occupation was cattle breeding: the tribes bred horses, donkeys, large and small cattle and camels. The camel provided meat and milk to the nomads, fabrics were made from wool, leather products were made from skins, and manure was used as fuel. Camels were seen as the equivalent of money, and were the perfect means of transportation in the desert.
Among these nomads, tribal relations were still dominant. There were tribal alliances and small powers. Perhaps the concept of “principality” can be applied to some, for example, to Nabatea. Their rulers in the documents of the Assyrian rulers were traditionally called “kings,” most likely by analogy with other countries, but it would be more reasonable to call them “sheikhs.” Sometimes “kings” at the head of tribal unions were replaced by “queens,” which may indicate the preservation of remnants of matriarchy. Among the North Arabian city-states, Jawf, Tayma, and Al-Ula should be mentioned.
The Arab tribes and principalities developed their own military organization and strategy, which constituted a specific military art. They did not have a standing army - all mature men of the tribe were fighters, and women also often took part in military campaigns. Warriors fought on camels, traditionally two on each: one driver, and the warrior himself, armed with a bow or spear. The nomadic Arabs also developed their own strategy for warfare: unexpected raids on the enemy and quick disappearance in the desert.
Being in the neighborhood of strong ancient eastern kingdoms - Egypt and Assyria, and small states of the Eastern Mediterranean, the Arabs of Northern Arabia were often attacked by them and, moreover, were at enmity with each other. North Arabian tribal unions and principalities were often involved in international conflicts of the time, which was especially typical for the $9th - 7th centuries. BC e., when the Assyrian kingdom waged a targeted offensive on the Eastern coast of the Mediterranean.
One of the first clashes between the Assyrians and the Arabs dates back to the middle of the 9th century. BC: in $853$, in the battle of Karkar in Syria, Shalmaneser $III$ defeated the troops of the coalition, which included Arabs. Subsequently, Tiglath-pileser $III$, Sargon $II$, Sennacherib continued their advance to the west, which inevitably led to increased clashes with Arab tribes and principalities. During the conquests, punitive expeditions were undertaken against the Arabs, tribute was levied (in gold, livestock, especially camels, fragrances and spices), the areas they occupied, citadels, water sources, etc. were ravaged. During the reign of Esarhaddon, the Arab tribes and principalities turned out to be an obstacle to the Assyrian kingdoms on the way to the conquest of Pharaonic Egypt. But Esarhaddon managed to subjugate some of them and force the Assyrian army to pass through their lands to the borders of Egypt, which contributed to its conquest in 671 BC. Ashurbanipal waged an intensified struggle with the Arabs due to the fact that the latter were not only increasingly united among themselves, but also entered into anti-Assyrian coalitions together with Egypt, Babylon and other countries. In the 40s of the 7th century. BC. As a result of several campaigns, Ashurbanipal completely conquered the rebellious Arab principalities and tribes, but still Assyria's power over the Arabs was nominal.
The short-term rule of the Neo-Babylonian kingdom in the international arena was accompanied by its attempts to gain a foothold in Arabia. Nabonidus even took possession of one of the main centers of Northern Arabia - the city of Teymu and for a short time made it his own residence, also conquered a number of Arabian cities and oases, which allowed him to concentrate in the hands of Babylon important trade routes passing through Arabia.
During the rise of the Persian state, Arabia maintained beneficial contacts with the Persians, but, as Herodotus notes, it was never under their rule.
South Arabian statehood
In the middle of the $II$ millennium BC. From the South Arab tribal community, large tribal unions began to emerge: Minean, Kataban, Sabaean. At the end of the $II$ - beginning of the $I$ millennium BC. As a result of the development of productive forces, production relations began to change, and the first class slave-owning societies appeared. There was an increase in property inequality, noble families emerged, concentrating political power in their hands, and groups of merchants and priestly nobility were formed. The land was in the hands of rural and urban communities, which regulated the water supply, and paid taxes and performed duties in favor of the state, temples and community administration. The main economic unit was a large patriarchal family, which could own not only one communal plot of land, but also buy and inherit other plots. By developing new areas, by constructing irrigation systems on them, and thus “revitalizing” it, the family received such land as ownership.
Families differed in their property status; over time, wealthy families sought to remove land plots from communal ownership and transfer them to personal ownership.
Note 2
A special category of lands consisted of large-scale temple and state lands, which were replenished from seized, confiscated, compulsorily purchased lands. The fund of lands of the king and his family was also significant. These lands were inhabited by a population who, in essence, were state slaves who performed a number of duties. Royal lands were often given into conditional ownership to impoverished families of free colonists together with slaves. Work on the temple lands took on the form of performing duties by the free population, temple slaves and persons dedicated to any deity.
Slaves were mainly recruited from among prisoners of war, acquired through purchase and sale, usually from regions of the ancient Eastern world (Gaza, Egypt, etc.). Debt slavery was not widespread. Sources speak of the presence of slaves in personal and temple households, in the household of the ruler and his family. In large patriarchal families they were equated with younger family members. Slaves owned by the ruler could ascend from time to time, occupy a privileged position among the same slaves and perform administrative functions.
The process of formation of an early class community led to the transformation of tribal unions into a state. In the conditions of Arabia, the leisurely progress of this process contributed not to the radical destruction of the clan-tribal system, but to their adaptation to the new orders of the class community, their modification from tribal to state bodies. This system of political structure in South Arabia is clearly illustrated by the Sabaean kingdom.
It consisted of $6$ “tribes”, of which $3$ belonged to the privileged, and the $3$ others were under their subordination. Each of the tribes was divided into large branches, those into the smallest, and the latter into separate clans. The tribes were governed by leaders - Kabirs, who came from authoritative families and formed a collegial body, possibly in the form of a council of elders.
Privileged tribes elected from representatives of noble families for a fixed period (in Saba - for $7$ years, in Ka-tabak - for $2$ years, etc.) eponyms - important officials of the kingdom who performed priestly functions, as well as some astrological, calendar observations, and some economic functions (land and water use). Documents were dated according to the years of activity of the eponyms, and chronology was carried out. They began to fulfill their official duties at the age of 30, and at the end of their powers they were members of the council of elders.
The supreme officials of the Sabaean state in the $III-II $ centuries. BC. there were mukarribs. They were responsible for the fulfillment of sacred duties, state and economic activities, the power of the mukarribs was hereditary.
During the war, the mukarribs could take over the leadership of the militia, in which case they received the title “malik” - king for a while. Over time, the mukarribs concentrated the prerogatives of royal power in their own hands, and at the end of the 1st millennium BC. their position was practically transformed into a royal one.
The supreme body of the Sabaean kingdom was the assembly of elders. It consisted of mukarrib and representatives of all $6$ Sabaean "tribes", while unprivileged tribes were entitled to only half representation. The Council of Elders had sacred, judicial, administrative, economic and legislative functions. The rest of the South Arabian countries (Main, Qataban, Ausan) had a similar government system.
Note 3
Over time, in the South Arabian states, along with tribal divisions, territorial divisions also appeared. Its basis was cities and settlements with adjacent rural districts, which used an autonomous management system. Each Sabaean resident belonged to one of the blood-related tribes and at the same time became part of a certain territorial unit.
Arabia at the beginning of the 7th century
Thanks to the main Muslim shrines in Mecca and Medina (Hejaz region) and, at the same time, the remoteness of the Arabian Peninsula from the political center of the Caliphate (Baghdad), representatives of the local clan and tribal elite, as well as religious leaders, became virtually independent from the power of the Baghdad caliphs from the end of the 8th century. At the same time, the economic and religious-political significance of the Hijaz determined the desire of the dynasties that ruled in Baghdad, and then in Cairo, to maintain their dominance here.
At this time, Oman, the eastern region of Arabia, became the center of followers of the religious-political movement of the Kharijites. The Aal al-Julanda dynasty was established here. In Bahrain, militant Qarmatians (representatives of one of the extreme currents in Shiism) were gaining a foothold, striving to conquer neighboring territories (under Qarmatian slogans, anti-caliph uprisings repeatedly broke out in the south of Iraq.) On the territory of modern Yemen, states emerged led by the dynasties of the Ziyadids, Yafurids and Zaydi imams.
Traditional "tower" house in the mountainous regions of the Arabian Peninsula
From the beginning of the 11th century. The Fatimids come to power in Egypt and are recognized by the dynasties of southern Arabia - the Sulayhids and Najahids. Subsequently, their lands were occupied by rivals - the Zuraids and Hamdanids, and then the Mahdids.
In the 70s XII century troops of the Ayyubids (rulers of Egypt from among the descendants of Salah ad-Din (Saladin)) invade Yemen. Ayyubid dominance in Yemen continued until 1229, when the Rasulid dynasty reigned here. By the middle of the 15th century. The Rasulids, who were at enmity with the Zaydi imams, are losing their position in the region. A few years later, most of South Yemen came under the rule of the Tahirid dynasty.
At the beginning of the 16th century. The Arabian Peninsula falls into the sphere of interests of Portugal and the Ottoman Empire. Oman's Yarubid rulers vigorously resisted European penetration.
Rub al-Khali Desert, Arabian Peninsula
In the 18th century The Albusaids pursued an active aggressive policy, trying to challenge the Portuguese and Dutch for control of trade in the Persian Gulf. In the second half of the 18th century. Great Britain, France, as well as the Wahhabis of Central Arabia are involved in this struggle. As a result, English influence became predominant in the Persian Gulf, and the British East India Company managed to obtain exclusive rights to trade.
In the 18th century In the central Arabian region of Najd, a new Muslim religious and political movement is emerging - Wahhabism. The creator of the Wahhabi state was the ruler of the small emirate of Diriyya (in the Najd region) Muhammad ibn Saud (1735 - 1765). He became the founder of the Saudi dynasty, which still rules in Saudi Arabia to this day.
At the beginning of the 19th century. Saudi power extends to all of central Arabia. They manage to establish control over the holy cities of Islam Mecca and Medina. However, in 1818, the Saudi state was destroyed by the troops of the Ottoman governor of Egypt, Muhammad Ali, who invaded Arabia.
After 1840, when Egyptian troops were forced to leave Arabia, the Saudis restored their state. The city of Riyadh becomes the new capital of the revived state (instead of Diriyah destroyed by the Egyptians).
In the second half of the 19th century. The territory of the Saudi state is captured by the rulers of the principality of Shammar (Northern Arabia) - the Rashidids. But at the beginning of the 20th century, the Saudis, under the leadership of the energetic young emir Abdel-Aziz ibn Abd ar-Rahman (Ibn Saud - the future first king of Saudi Arabia), liberated Nejd from the power of the Rashidids.
In the second half of the 19th - early 20th centuries. Britain's colonial policy in the region is becoming increasingly aggressive. It extends its influence to the territory of South Yemen. The main stronghold of the British in the south of Arabia becomes the city they built and the strategically important port of Aden. The British concluded treaties of “friendship” with the emirs and sheikhs of the southern regions of Yemen, and subsequently - of a protectorate.
During the First World War (1914 - 1918), Great Britain conducted active intelligence activities in the region. During the fighting against Turkish troops on the front between Egypt and Palestine, the British are trying to rouse the local Arab population against the Turks.
With the help and under political pressure from England in 1916, an anti-Turkish uprising led by the Hashemite dynasty (rulers of Mecca) took place in Hejaz. After the war, with the support of Great Britain, representatives of this dynasty came to power in Iraq and Transjordan.
In central Arabia, after the First World War, the Saudis continue to fight for the unification of Arabia. In 1926 they defeat the Hashemites in the Hijaz and occupy this crucial area with the holy cities of Mecca and Medina.
In 1927, Emir Abdel-Aziz ibn Abd ar-Rahman (Ibn Saud) was proclaimed king of “Hijaz, Najd and annexed regions,” and in 1932 the new state began to be called Saudi Arabia.
Literature:
. Vasiliev A. M. Puritans of Islam? Wahhabism and the first Saudi state in Arabia M., 1967.
Vasiliev A. M. History of Saudi Arabia. M., 1982.
Kotlov L.N. Yemen Arab Republic. Directory. M., 1971.
Lutsky V.B. New history of Arab countries. M., 1965.
An-Nawbakhti, al-Hasan ibn Mussa. Shia sects. Per. from Arabic and comment. S. M. Prozorova. M., 1973.
Petrushevsky I.P. Islam in Iran in the 7th - 15th centuries. Leningrad, 1966.
Ash-Shahrastani. A book about religions and sects. Per. from Arabic, introduction and commentary. S. M. Prozorova. M., 1984.
Along with Byzantium, the most prosperous state in the Mediterranean throughout the Middle Ages was the Arab Caliphate, created by the Prophet Mohammed (Mohammed, Mohammed) and his successors. In Asia, as in Europe, military-feudal and military-bureaucratic state formations arose sporadically, as a rule, as a result of military conquests and annexations. This is how the Mughal empire arose in India, the empire of the Tang dynasty in China, etc. A strong integrating role fell to the Christian religion in Europe, the Buddhist religion in the states of Southeast Asia, and the Islamic religion in the Arabian Peninsula.
The coexistence of domestic and state slavery with feudal-dependent and tribal relations continued in some Asian countries during this historical period.
The Arabian Peninsula, where the first Islamic state arose, is located between Iran and Northeast Africa. During the time of the Prophet Mohammed, born around 570, it was sparsely populated. The Arabs were then a nomadic people and, with the help of camels and other pack animals, provided trade and caravan connections between India and Syria, and then North African and European countries. The Arab tribes were also responsible for ensuring the safety of trade routes with oriental spices and handicrafts, and this circumstance served as a favorable factor in the formation of the Arab state. Mohammed himself, according to legend, came from the Quraysh tribe, who carried out similar security functions along caravan routes for several generations.
Mohammed believed in his great mission at about the age of forty, after his first communication with the god Allah. He, in particular, proclaimed that “there is no God but Allah, and Mohammed is his Prophet.” He initially launched his preaching activities in his hometown of Mecca, but under the threat of persecution by the priests of the local pagan cult and the aristocracy dissatisfied with his rise, Mohammed was forced to retire with like-minded people to the neighboring city of Medina (formerly Yathrib) From the moment of this relocation and isolated existence , which received the name “Hijra” (621-629), the summer reckoning according to the Muslim calendar begins.
Mohammed quickly gathered a significant number of followers and already in 630 he managed to settle again in Mecca, whose inhabitants by that time had become imbued with his faith and teachings. The new religion was called Islam (peace with God, submission to the will of Allah) and quickly spread throughout the peninsula and beyond. In communicating with representatives of other religions - Christians, Jews and Zoroastrians - Mohammed's followers maintained religious tolerance. In the first centuries of the spread of Islam, a saying from the Koran (Sura 9.33 and Sura 61.9) about the prophet Mohammed, whose name means “gift of God”, was minted on Umayyad and Abbasid coins: “Mohammed is the messenger of God, whom God sent with guidance on the right path and with true faith, in order to elevate it above all faiths, even if the polytheists are dissatisfied with this.”
By the time of the death of the prophet, almost all of Arabia had fallen under his rule, his first successors - Abu Bakr, Omar, Osman, Ali, nicknamed the righteous caliphs (from "caliph" - successor, deputy) - remained with him in friendly and family ties . Already under Caliph Omar (634-644), Damascus, Syria, Palestine and Phenicia, and then Egypt, were annexed to this state. In the east, the Arab state expanded into the territories of Mesopotamia and Persia. Over the next century, the Arabs conquered North Africa and Spain, but twice failed to conquer Constantinople, and later in France they were defeated at Poitiers (732), but maintained their dominance in Spain for another seven centuries.
The Umayyad dynasty (from 661), which carried out the conquest of Spain, moved the capital to Damascus, and the Abbasid dynasty that followed them (from the descendants of the prophet named Abba, from 750) ruled from Baghdad for 500 years. By the end of the 10th century. The Arab state, which had previously united peoples from the Pyrenees and Morocco to Fergana and Persia, was divided into three caliphates - the Abbasids in Baghdad, the Fatimids in Cairo and the Umayyads in Spain.
The most famous of the Abbasids were the caliph Harun al-Rashid, who was included in the characters in the Arabian Nights, as well as his son al-Mamun. Naturally, in the role of caliphs, they were also occupied with the problems of the spread of the new faith, which they themselves and their subjects perceived as a commandment to live in equality and universal brotherhood of all true believers. The duties of the ruler in this case were to be a fair, wise and merciful ruler. Enlightened caliphs combined concerns about administration, finance, justice and the army with support for education, art, literature, science, as well as trade and commerce. The latter were understood as intermediary operations and services related to transportation, warehousing, resale of goods and usury.
As in previous historical eras, an important role was given to ways of assimilating the heritage and experience of highly developed ancient cultures and civilizations. In the past, the Greeks adopted writing from the Phoenicians and some philosophical concepts from eastern sages (Egyptian, Mesopotamian, possibly Indian). After 10 centuries, the ancient Greco-Roman heritage facilitated the formation of Arab-Muslim culture, which for several centuries continued the cultural work that was interrupted for one reason or another in the Greco-Latin world.
In the Middle Ages, acquaintance with Arabic science became, according to the generalization of Academician V.V. Bartold, “one of the main advantages of the Western European medieval world over the Byzantine...” The Arab-Muslim world, in the course of assimilation and processing of the ancient heritage, brought into the public arena such outstanding thinkers and figures as Farabi, Avicenna (980- 1037), Ibn Rushd (Latin name Averroes, b. 1126) and Ibn Khaldun (XIV century).
Ibn Khaldun lived in North Africa and tried (the only one in Arabic literature!) to move from narrative history to pragmatic (utilitarian scientific) in order to establish and describe the laws of world (in this case, within the Arab Caliphate and its surroundings) social history . He viewed history as a “new science”, and considered the main area of historical change not changes in political forms, as the ancient Greeks did in their time, but the conditions of economic life, which have a strong influence on the transition from rural and nomadic life to urban life and customs.
It is characteristic that for the Arab historian throughout the world and its history, only the cultural merits of Muslims as a whole existed as significant. Thus, he places the historically new culture of Muslim peoples above all others, but notes its decline and predicts its death. In his fellow Arabs, he saw only nomads, Destroyers of culture. According to his generalization, the Arabs did not achieve any success either in the arts, with the exception of poetry, or in public life. Even when choosing a place to build cities, they were allegedly guided only by the needs of nomadic life, as a result of which the cities founded by the Arabs quickly fell into decay.
The Caliphate as a medieval state arose as a result of the unification of Arab tribes, whose center of settlement was the Arabian Peninsula.
A characteristic feature of the emergence of statehood among the Arabs in the 7th century was the religious overtones of this process, which was accompanied by the formation of a new world religion - Islam. The political movement for the unification of tribes under the slogans of renouncing paganism and polytheism, which objectively reflected the trends in the emergence of a new system, was called “Hanif”.
The Hanif preachers' search for a new truth and a new god, which took place under the strong influence of Judaism and Christianity, is associated primarily with the name of Muhammad. Muhammad argued that Islamic teachings do not contradict the two previously widespread monotheistic religions - Judaism and Christianity, but only confirm and clarify them. However, at the same time, it became clear that Islam also contains something new. His cruelty and sometimes fanatical intolerance in some matters, especially issues of power and the right to rule, were quite clearly evident. According to the doctrine of Islam, religious power is indivisible from secular power and is the basis of the latter, and therefore Islam demanded the same unconditional obedience to God, the prophet and those who have power.
In the history of the medieval empire, called the Arab Caliphate, two periods are usually distinguished: Damascus and Baghdad, which correspond to the main stages of development of Arab medieval society and state.
The development of Arab society was subject to the basic laws of evolution of eastern medieval societies with a certain specificity of the action of religious and cultural-national factors. Characteristic features of Muslim society were the dominant position of state ownership of land with the widespread use of slave labor in the state economy (mines, workshops), state exploitation of peasants through rent-tax in favor of the ruling elite, religious-state regulation of all spheres of public life, the absence of clearly defined class groups, special status of cities, any freedoms and privileges.
Since the legal status of an individual was determined by religion, differences in the legal status of Muslims and non-Muslims (dhimmis) came to the fore. Initially, the attitude towards the conquered Dhimmies was quite tolerant: they retained self-government, their own language and their own courts. However, over time, their inferior position became more and more obvious: their relations with Muslims were regulated by Islamic law, they could not marry Muslims, had to wear clothes that distinguished them, supply the Arab army with food, pay a heavy land tax and poll tax.
At the first stage of development, the caliphate was a centralized theocratic monarchy. Spiritual (immat) and secular (emirate) power was concentrated in the hands of the caliph, which was considered indivisible and unlimited. The first caliphs were elected by the Muslim nobility, but quite soon the power of the caliph began to be transferred by testamentary disposition.
Subsequently, the vizier became the main adviser and highest official under the caliph. According to Muslim law, viziers could be of two types: with broad powers or with limited powers, i.e. only those carrying out the orders of the Caliph. In the early caliphate, the usual practice was to appoint a vizier with limited power. Important officials at the court also included the head of the caliph's personal guard, the head of the police, and a special official supervising other officials.
The central bodies of government were special government offices - divans. The Military Affairs Department was in charge of equipping and arming the army. It kept lists of people who were part of the standing army, indicating the salary they received or the amount of awards for military service. The Department of Internal Affairs controlled the financial authorities involved in accounting for tax and other revenues, and for this purpose the necessary statistical information was collected. The postal service sofa performed special functions. He was involved in the delivery of mail and government cargo, supervised the construction and repair of roads, caravanserais and wells. Moreover, this institution actually performed the functions of the secret police.
The system of local government bodies during the 7th-8th centuries. Has undergone significant changes. Initially, local governments in conquered countries remained intact, and old methods of administration were preserved. As the power of the rulers of the caliphate consolidated, the local administration was streamlined along the Persian model. The territory of the caliphate was divided into provinces, ruled, as a rule, by military governors - emirs. Emirs were usually appointed by the caliph from among his entourage. However, there were also emirs appointed from representatives of the local nobility, from the former rulers of the conquered territories. The emirs were in charge of the armed forces, the local administrative, financial and police apparatus. The emirs had assistants - naibs.
Small administrative units in the caliphate (cities, villages) were governed by officials of various ranks and titles. Often these functions were assigned to the leaders of local Muslim religious communities - elders (sheikhs). The large role of the army in the caliphate was determined by the very doctrine of Islam. The main strategic goal of the caliphate was considered to be the conquest of territory not inhabited by Muslims through a “holy war.” All adult and free Muslims were required to take part in it.
At the first stage of conquest, the Arab army was a tribal militia. However, the need to strengthen and centralize the army caused a number of military reforms at the end of the 7th - mid-88th centuries. The Arab army began to consist of two main parts (standing troops and volunteers), and each was under the command of a special commander. Privileged Muslim warriors occupied a special place in the standing army. The main branch of the army was light cavalry.
The huge medieval empire, consisting of heterogeneous parts, despite the unifying factor of Islam and the authoritarian-theocratic forms of exercising power, could not exist for a long time as a single whole. Since the 9th century. Significant changes are taking place in the state structure of the caliphate.
Firstly, there was an actual limitation of the caliph's temporal power. His deputy, the grand vizier, relying on the support of the nobility, pushes the supreme ruler away from the real levers of power and control. Without reporting to the caliph, the vizier could independently appoint senior government officials. The caliphs began to share spiritual power with the chief qadi, who led the courts and education. Secondly, in the state mechanism of the caliphate, the role of the army and its influence on political life increased even more. The militia was replaced by a professional mercenary army. The caliph's palace guard is created from slaves of Turkic, Caucasian and even Slavic origin (Mamluks), which in the 9th century. becomes one of the main pillars of central government. However, at the end of the 9th century. her influence becomes so great that the guards military leaders deal with undesirable caliphs and elevate their proteges to the throne.
Thirdly, separatist tendencies in the provinces are intensifying. The power of the emirs, as well as local tribal leaders, is becoming increasingly independent from the center. From the 9th century the political power of the governors over the controlled territories becomes virtually hereditary. Entire dynasties of emirs appear. Emirs create their own army, retain tax revenues in their favor and thus become independent rulers.
The collapse of the caliphate into emirates and sultanates - independent states in Spain, Morocco, Egypt, Central Asia, Transcaucasia - led to the fact that the Baghdad caliph, while remaining the spiritual head of the Sunnis, by the 10th century. actually controlled only part of Persia and the capital territory. In the X and XI centuries. As a result of the capture of Baghdad by various nomadic tribes, the caliph was twice deprived of temporal power. The eastern caliphate was finally conquered and abolished by the Mongols in the 13th century. The seat of the caliphate was moved to Cairo, in the western part of the caliphate, where the caliph retained spiritual leadership among the Sunnis until the beginning of the 16th century, when it passed to the Turkish sultans. Simultaneously with the emergence of the Caliphate, its law, Sharia, was also formed. Law was initially formed as the most important part of religion. Its main sources were the Koran - the holy book of Islam, containing instructions that are in the nature of moral principles; sunna - a collection of legends about the actions and sayings of Muhammad, containing the prescriptions of family inheritance and judicial law; ijma - decisions made by authoritative Muslim jurists on issues not reflected in the Koran and Sunnah, fatwa - a written opinion of the highest religious authorities on decisions of secular authorities regarding certain issues of public life.
According to Islamic law, the actions of each person are defined as: 1) strictly obligatory, 2) desirable, 3) permitted, 4) undesirable, but not punishable, 5) prohibited and strictly punishable.
Islam has identified a number of main protected values: religion, life, reason, procreation and property.
In accordance with the encroachment on these values and the nature of punishment, crimes are divided into:
1) crimes against the foundations of religion and the state, for which precisely defined punishments follow;
2) crimes against individuals, for which certain penalties are also imposed;
3) crimes and offenses for which the punishments are not strictly established and the right to choose the punishment is given to the court.
For Muslims, the Quran is the living word of Allah and therefore it contains eternal Truth.
One of the most significant phenomena in medieval civilization in the East was Muslim law (Sharia). This legal system, which over time acquired global significance, arose and took shape within the framework of the Arab Caliphate. After his fall, Muslim law did not lose its former significance.
Shariah is legal regulations integral to the theology of Islam and closely related to its religious and mystical ideas. Islam views legal principles as part of a single divine law and order.
The most important source of Sharia is the Koran, the holy book of Muslims, the compilation of which is attributed to Muhammad. The Koran consists of 114 chapters (suras), divided into 6219 verses (ayat). Only about 500 verses contain injunctions classified as Sharia. And only 80 of them can be considered legal. The second source of law obligatory for all Muslims was the Sunnah (“sacred tradition”), which consisted of numerous stories (hadiths) about the judgments and actions of Muhammad himself. Despite the processing of hadiths, the sunnah contained many contradictory provisions, and the choice of the most “authentic” of them depended entirely on the discretion of the judges.
The third place in the hierarchy of Muslim law was occupied by ijma (“general agreement of the Muslim community”). In practice, ijma consisted of concurring opinions on religious and legal issues that were expressed by the companions of Muhammad or later by the most influential Muslim theologians and jurists.
One of the most controversial sources of Islamic law was qiyas - the solution of legal cases by analogy. According to qiyas, a rule established in the Quran, Sunnah or Ijma can be applied to a case that was not expressly provided for in these sources of law. Qiyas, thus, not only made it possible to regulate new social relations, but also contributed in a number of cases to the liberation of Sharia from theological overlay. But in the hands of feudal Muslim judges, qiyas often became an instrument of outright arbitrariness. As an additional source, Sharia allowed local customs that were not directly included in Muslim law itself during the period of its formation, but did not contradict its principles.
Finally, the sources of law in the Arab Caliphate were considered derivatives of Sharia, decrees and orders of the caliphs - firmans. In later Muslim states (Ottoman Empire, etc.), with the development of legislation, state laws - kanuns - became sources of law.
Judicial functions in the caliphate were separated from administrative functions. Local authorities had no right to interfere with judges' decisions. The head of state, the caliph, was considered the supreme judge. In general, the court was the privilege of the clergy. The highest judicial power in practice was exercised by a board of the most authoritative theologians, who were also jurists. On behalf of the caliph, they appointed lower judges (qadis) and special commissioners from among the clergy, who controlled their local activities. The powers of the qadi were extensive. They considered local court cases of all categories, monitored the execution of court decisions, supervised places of detention, certified wills, distributed inheritance, and checked the legality of land use. The court decisions of the qadi were final and not subject to appeal. The exception was those cases when the caliph himself or his authorized representatives changed the decision of the qadi.