One of the important inventions of the era. Industrial Revolution
In the 1760s-1790s in England (UK) started industrial revolution.
Causes of the industrial revolution
Market competition spurred craftsmen to invent new mechanisms that would reduce the cost of goods. This was especially important in the textile industry. The fashion for Indian cotton fabrics hurt the incomes of English weavers. Indian artisans have been making fabrics from cotton for many centuries, so they were stronger and softer than European ones, their color did not fade after washing. And at the same time, fabrics came to England at a price lower than English. The only way to compete with Indian artisans was to make production cheaper.
Beginning of the industrial revolution
"Jenny's Spinning Wheel"
The loom was improved in 1733. Cloth worker Kay invented for him a mechanical shuttle that no longer needed to be thrown over the threads by hand. But the weavers were directly dependent on those who spun the threads, and here inefficient manual labor remained, and therefore there was not enough yarn for new machines.
Only in 1765 master James Hargreaves designed a spinning machine, which he named after his daughter "Jenny's spinning wheel". The person working on it only needed to move the pedals and levers, and the mechanisms of the machine themselves pulled out and spun several threads at once, and many times faster than hand spinning.
Richard Arkwright |
James Watt |
Spinning machine by Richard Arkwright
At the same time, Master Hayes built water spinning wheel, consisting of rollers driven by a water wheel. It's curious that patent for this invention (that is, a document confirming authorship and giving the right to profit from its use) was received not by the creator of the machine himself, but by a clever businessman, a rural hairdresser Richard Arkwright engaged in textile production.
The emergence of factories
Entrepreneurial owners replaced the manual labor of several workers in their manufactories with one "Jenny's spinning wheel" or a water spinning wheel. Workers no longer worked on the product itself (fabric), but serviced the machines that created this product. As a result, fabrics began to be made or, as they said in England, "fabricated" very quickly. New enterprises, where manual labor was replaced by machine, began to be called factories. So in England began the industrial revolution - the transition from manual labor to machine and from manufactory to the factory.
Technical progress
The development of invention in England during the industrial revolution was called technical progress. It was a process based on the rapid improvement and complication of technology.
Watt's steam engine
For a long time, the industrial revolution was held back by the fact that people or water wheels had to set the machines in motion. Factories and manufactories had to be built only next to fast-ry rivers. Therefore, many inventors tried to find a new source of energy. Since antiquity, it has been known that water vapor generated by boiling water, if directed through a cylinder pipe, is able to set mechanisms in motion. In the XVIII century, the steam engine was assembled by different mechanics in different countries. However, all their creations required a lot of fuel, and the power of their action was very weak, a lot of energy was wasted. The leadership of the university in Glasgow instructed the mechanics to finalize one of these engines James Watt.The master has been working on improving the machine for many years. Finally in 1784 he introduced people to the universal steam engine - Watt's steam engine. The water in it boiled in a closed boiler, steam entered the cylinder and pushed the piston. Without a modern lathe, Watt managed to fit the size of the piston to the size of the chi-linder so precisely that even a small coin could not be inserted between them. Now the power of steam was not wasted. The piston, through a special transmission mechanism, could set in motion the parts of the "Jenny's spinning wheel", inflate bellows or rotate wheels in any part of England.
Technological progress in modern times |
Pudding ovens
The next problem to be solved was that the machines and mechanisms of Hargreaves, Arkwright, Watt, made mainly of wood, quickly wore out at high speed. Iron in England was very expensive, and it was mainly purchased from Sweden, Russia and other countries. Their ores were plentiful, but charcoal was needed to smelt them, and most of the forests in England had already been cut down. In the bowels of England there was a lot of coal, but medieval blast furnaces could not work on it. In 1783, after long experiments, two masters at once, independently of each other, built new ones - puddling (mixing) furnaces, in which metal smelted from ore was mixed with burning coal and gave good iron. material from the site
Machine Henry Maudsley
Now the old ways of processing metals stood in the way of the industrial revolution. Working at the machine, the turner held the cutter in his hands, bringing it to the rotating part. Naturally, with this method, it was very difficult for, say, James Watt to adjust the dimensions of the piston and cylinder. It is simply impossible to make the same screws and nuts. In the late 90s of the XVIII century, a young mechanic Henry Maudsley invented a movable caliper - a tool holder for a lathe. He firmly clamped the cutter, and the turner could use special wheels to move it to the part at any distance, at any angle. Maudsley was the first to use his invention to create standard parts - screws and nuts with the same thread, which could be used to assemble different machines and mechanisms. Now a person could make others with the help of some machines.
Consequences of the industrial revolution (industrialization)
cm.Thanks to the industrial revolution in England, it was established
Causes of the industrial revolution report
18th century industrial revolution in england
Questions about this item:
Achievements and problems of the industrial revolution in the table are often drawn up by researchers of this issue for convenience. In the broad sense of the word, this is the name given to the transition from manual to machine labor, the movement from manufactory to factory. These processes developed in European countries in the XVIII-XIX centuries.
Preconditions for the industrial revolution
The achievements and problems of the industrial revolution are the most visible in the table. We will dwell on them in this article in more detail, but for now we will consider the events that led to large-scale industrialization in Europe.
The fact is that the 18th century brought into European society such a thing as secularization. This is a fundamental reorientation of the church from the problems of spiritual life to worldly ones. Therefore, at this time, the spirit of entrepreneurship becomes dominant, as well as the sincere faith of the majority in the unlimited possibilities of human thought and reason.
In addition, large-scale changes in socio-political life lead to industrialization. Bourgeois revolutions are thundering in European countries. Protest moods are ultimately associated with the formation of a fundamentally new economic foundation of society.
industrial revolution
One of the key prerequisites for industrialization was the industrial revolution in Europe. In the most developed countries of the continent, already then there was a significant increase in factory production.
Perhaps, in the forefront was England. You can fill in the table of achievements and problems of the industrial revolution by carefully reading this article and paying attention to the processes that took place in Foggy Albion.
The fact is that in England a powerful industrial manufactory was formed and the agrarian revolution ended almost earlier than in all other countries. As a result, small peasant farms went bankrupt, and large farmers began to own land. They rented land or hired workers to cultivate the land.
A table of achievements and problems of the industrial revolution is necessary for a history lesson. Compiling it based on this article, it is worth remembering that in the 18th century revolutionary mechanisms were invented, with the help of which it became possible to create machines that greatly facilitated manual labor or completely replaced it. For example, these include a steam engine or a spinning wheel.
Events of the industrial revolution
When compiling a table of achievements and problems of the industrial revolution, a list of the main events that took place at that time in the advanced European countries will help.
Many historians consider 1765 as the starting point of industrialization. It was then that Briton James Hargreaves invented the Jenny spinning wheel, which replaced the manual labor of dozens of women. With its appearance, the majority connects the beginning of the so-called machine age.
After that, the table of inventions of the industrial revolution began to be actively replenished. Achievements and problems at that time still had no time to analyze. Indeed, in 1784, the Scotsman James Watt invented the steam engine, in 1800, another Englishman, Henry Maudsley, commissioned a metal-cutting machine. With its help, it became possible to produce standard-sized nuts and bolts on an industrial scale.
By 1803, industrialization reaches America. The first car powered by a steam engine is launched, in 1807 the Claremont steamer is launched. Thus, a whole era of steam ships begins in the world.
Transport success
In the table of achievements and problems of the industrial revolution, 1819 must be noted. It was then that the steamship first crossed the Atlantic Ocean. The route ran from Liverpool to New York, the journey took 26 days. This was a real breakthrough. The issue of transport accessibility of the New World was resolved once and for all.
In 1825, the Englishman George Stephenson built the world's first railway. The first train leaves the short distance from Stockton to Darlington.
At the end of the first quarter of the 19th century, Europe faced the first problems of industrialization. There is a crisis of overproduction. It all started in England, and then rapidly began to spread to all surrounding countries.
Second industrial revolution
Historians attribute the period of the second industrial revolution to the second half of the 19th century. It all ends with the emergence of large and influential financial companies and industrial corporations. Every year they begin to have an increasing influence on the economy and politics of their states.
At these stages, the creation of the first telegraph line that connected the American cities of Baltimore and Washington should be included in the table of achievements and problems of the great industrial revolution. This happened in 1844. Just six years later, a telegraph cable connects England with the rest of mainland Europe. A really impressive project for those times is being implemented. The cable is laid along the bottom of the English Channel.
And already in 1866, a telegraph cable runs along the bottom of the Atlantic Ocean. Thus a permanent connection appears between America and England. At the same time, by 1858, the first large-scale economic crisis hit the world. Industrialization leads to the fact that all the economies of advanced countries become interdependent on each other. Therefore, financial problems cover most of the developed countries of the planet.
Achievements of the industrial revolution
At school, in the 8th grade, a table of inventions of the industrial revolution is needed. Achievements and problems with its help becomes easier to analyze. Therefore, it is worth noting that, starting with the steam engine, the next important step was the development of the textile industry.
They were followed by industries such as engineering and metallurgy. The last branch began to develop especially intensively after the appearance of a large number of machines that required more and more metal. Therefore, researchers of that period consider the replacement of charcoal, which has been used since the time of medieval blacksmiths, with coal coke as the main achievement in metallurgy. The merit of this is Clement Clerk, who introduced it into use in the 17th century. But it received mass distribution only during industrialization.
Against this background, the chemical industry is rapidly developing. Speaking about the achievements and problems of the industrial revolution in the table of grade 8, it should be mentioned that the industrial production of the most popular and popular chemicals became possible. For example, sulfuric acid has been well known for many years. But the way it was obtained was radically different. If earlier it was formed from oxides of mineral sulfur during combustion, then in 1746 the chemist John Rebuck began to use bulk lead oxides, which significantly increased the productivity of the process.
Another undoubted achievement of the industrial revolution, which many ordinary citizens felt in everyday life, is gas lamps. Centralized street lighting appeared, which immediately increased labor productivity, lengthened the working day at plants and factories, and caused a decrease in crime in large cities.
All this became possible thanks to the Scot William Murdoch. It was he who was the first to obtain lighting gas by pyrolysis of coal. He also figured out how to accumulate, transport and use it in lanterns.
The first gas lamps appeared in London. This happened in 1812. Within a few years, almost all the coal that was mined in English mines went to street lighting.
Problems of industrialization
In the 8th grade, in the table of achievements and problems of the industrial revolution, it is necessary to note the difficulties that people faced. The main one is rapid urbanization. The emergence of a large number of hired workers led to social exacerbations. When the factory centers were relatively small, any urban dweller could, in addition to his earnings at the factory, cultivate a garden in front of his house, and if for some reason he lost his job, he went to work on a farm, where laborers were always needed.
But when the cities began to grow, there was no longer such an opportunity. The peasants who came to work had to completely rebuild, get along in an unusual urban life.
Social protests
One of the biggest problems was social protests. Politicians had to support social programs for the poor in order to reduce political instability in society.
State regulation of relations between business and ordinary workers was also applied. This contributed to the removal of social tension in the shortest possible time.
Results of industrialization
With all the problems and difficulties, the results of industrialization were positive. The standard of living has risen in almost all indicators. People began to eat better, affordable and high-quality medical care appeared, and it became possible to comply with elementary sanitary rules.
As a result, life expectancy increased markedly, and mortality began to decline. The population explosion has significantly increased the population of developed European countries.
Industrialization in Russia
These processes practically did not capture Russia. The industrial revolution in our country occurred much later. But it was moving at a faster pace.
Russia has entered the second echelon of industrialization. The industrial revolution was carried out with the active participation of the state, not entrepreneurs. Germany, Japan and almost all countries of South-Eastern Europe were in the same company. In them, heavy industry overtook light industry, while in the countries of the first echelon the revolution began precisely with light industry. The heavy one was connected at later stages.
All these processes are reflected in the table.
The Great Industrial Revolution, the achievements and problems of which will be discussed in the article, began in England (mid-18th century) and gradually embraced the entire world civilization. It led to the mechanization of production, the growth of the economy and the creation of a modern industrial society. The topic is covered in the eighth grade history course and will be useful to both students and parents.
Basic concept
A detailed definition of the concept can be seen in the picture above. It was first used by French economist Adolphe Blanqui in 1830. The theory was developed by the Marxists and Arnold Toynbee (English historian). The industrial revolution is not an evolutionary process associated with the emergence of new machines based on scientific and technical discoveries (some already existed at the beginning of the 18th century), but a massive transition to a new organization of labor - machine production in large factories, which replaced the manual labor of manufactories.
There are other definitions of this phenomenon in the books, including the industrial revolution. It applies to the initial stage of the revolution, during which they are distinguished by three:
- Industrial revolution: the emergence of a new industry - mechanical engineering and the creation of a steam engine (from the middle of the 18th century to the first half of the 19th century).
- Organization of in-line production through the use of chemicals and electricity (from the second half of the 19th century to the beginning of the 20th century). The stage was first identified by David Landis.
- Use in the production of information and communication technologies (from the end of the 20th century to the present). There is no consensus in science about the third stage.
Industrial revolution (industrial revolution): basic prerequisites
For the organization of factory production, a number of conditions are necessary, the main of which are:
- The presence of a labor force - people deprived of property.
- The possibility of selling goods (sales markets).
- The existence of rich people with money savings.
These conditions were formed first of all in England, where the bourgeoisie came to power after the revolution of the 17th century. The seizure of land from the peasants and the ruin of the artisans in fierce competition with the manufactories created a huge army of destitute people in need of work. The migration of former farmers to the cities led to a weakening of subsistence farming. If the villagers themselves produced clothes and utensils for themselves, then the townspeople were forced to buy them. Goods were also exported abroad, as sheep breeding was well developed in the country. In the hands of the bourgeoisie profits accumulated from the slave trade, the robbery of the colonies and the export of wealth from India. The Industrial Revolution (the transition from manual labor to machine labor) became a reality thanks to a number of serious inventions.
Spinning production
The industrial revolution first affected the cotton industry, the most developed in the country. The stages of its mechanization can be seen in the presented table.
Edmund Cartwright improved the loom (1785), because the weavers could no longer process as much yarn as they produced in the factories of England. A 40-fold increase in productivity is the best proof that the industrial revolution has arrived. Achievements and problems (table) will be presented in the article. They are associated with the need to invent a special propulsion force that does not depend on the proximity of water.
steam engine
The search for a new source of energy was important not only in but also in the mining industry, where the work was especially hard. Already in 1711, an attempt was made to create a steam pump with a piston and a cylinder, into which water was injected. This was the first serious attempt to use steam. The author of an improved steam engine in 1763 was In 1784, the first double-acting steam engine used in a spinning mill was patented. The introduction of patents made it possible to protect the copyright of inventors, which contributed to their motivation for new achievements. Without this step, the industrial revolution would hardly have been possible.
Achievements and challenges (table shown in the picture below) show that the steam engine contributed to the industrial revolution in the development of transport. The appearance of the first steam locomotives on smooth rails is associated with the name of George Stephenson (1814), who personally operated a 33-car train in 1825 on the first railway for citizens in history. Its 30 km route connected Stockton and Darlington. By the middle of the century, all of England was surrounded by a network of railways. A little earlier, an American working in France tested the first steamboat (1803).
Advances in mechanical engineering
In the table above, one should highlight the achievement without which the industrial revolution would have been impossible - the transition from manufactory to factory. This is an invention of a lathe that makes it possible to cut nuts and screws. Henry Maudsley, a mechanic from England, made a breakthrough in the development of industry, in fact creating a new industry - mechanical engineering (1798-1800). In order to provide machine tools for factory workers, machines must be created to produce other machines. Planing and milling machines soon appeared (1817, 1818). Mechanical engineering contributed to the development of metallurgy and the extraction of coal, which allowed England to flood other countries with cheap manufactured goods. For this she received the name "workshop of the world."
Collective work with the development of machine tool industry has become a necessity. A new type of worker has emerged - one who performs only one operation and is not able to produce the finished product from start to finish. There was a separation of intellectual forces from physical labor, which led to the emergence of qualified specialists who formed the basis of the middle class. The industrial revolution is not only a technical aspect, but also serious social consequences.
Social Consequences
The main result of the industrial revolution is the creation of an industrial society. It is characterized by:
- Personal freedom of citizens.
- Market relations.
- Technical modernization.
- The new structure of society (the predominance of urban residents, class stratification).
- Competition.
New technical possibilities appeared (transport, communications), which improved the quality of life of people. But in the pursuit of profit, the bourgeoisie was looking for ways to reduce the cost of labor, which led to the widespread use of the labor of women and children. Society split into two opposing classes: the bourgeoisie and the proletariat.
The ruined peasants and artisans could not get a job due to a lack of jobs. They considered the machines that replaced their labor to be the culprits, so the movement against machine tools gained momentum. The workers smashed the equipment of the factories, which marked the beginning of the class struggle against the exploiters. The growth of banks and the increase in capital imported into England at the beginning of the 19th century led to the low solvency of other countries, which caused a crisis of overproduction in 1825. These are the consequences of the industrial revolution.
Achievements and challenges (table): results of the industrial revolution
The table about industrial revolutions (achievements and problems) will be incomplete without taking into account the foreign policy aspect. For most of the 19th century, England's economic dominance was undeniable. It dominated the global trading market, which was rapidly developing. At the first stage, only France competed with it thanks to the targeted policy of Napoleon Bonaparte. The uneven economic development of countries can be seen in the picture below.
The second stage of the revolution: the emergence of monopolies
The technical achievements of the second stage are presented above (see picture No. 4). Chief among them: the invention of new means of communication (telephone, radio, telegraph), the internal combustion engine and the furnace for steel smelting. The emergence of new energy sources is associated with the discovery of oil fields. This made it possible for the first time to create a car on a gasoline engine (1885). Chemistry came to the service of man, thanks to which strong synthetic materials began to be created.
For new industries (for the development of oil fields, for example), significant capital was required. The process of their concentration has intensified through the merger of companies, as well as their merging with banks, whose role has increased significantly. Monopolies appear - powerful enterprises that control both production and marketing of products. They were created by the industrial revolutions. Achievements and problems (table will be presented below) are associated with the consequences of the emergence of monopoly capitalism. are shown in the picture.
Consequences of the second stage of the industrial revolution
The uneven development of countries and the emergence of large corporations led to wars for the redivision of the world, the capture of markets and new sources of raw materials. During the period from 1870 to 1955 there were twenty serious military conflicts. A huge number of countries were involved in the two world wars. The creation of international monopolies led to the economic division of the world under the dominance of the financial oligarchy. Instead of exporting goods, large corporations began to export capital, creating production in countries with cheap labor. Within countries, monopolies dominate, ruining and absorbing smaller enterprises.
But the industrial revolutions also bring a lot of positive things. Achievements and problems (the table is presented in the last subheading) of the second stage is mastering the results of scientific and technical discoveries, creating a developed infrastructure of society, and adapting to new living conditions. Monopoly capitalism is the most developed form of the capitalist mode of production, in which all the contradictions and problems of the bourgeois system are most fully manifested.
Results of the second stage
Industrial Revolution: Achievements and Challenges (table)
Achievements | Problems | |
Technical aspect |
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Social aspect |
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The industrial revolution, the achievements and problems of which are presented in two tables (according to the results of the first and second stages), is the greatest achievement of civilization. The transition to factory production was accompanied by technological progress. However, the risk of military and environmental catastrophes requires that the development of modern technologies and the use of new energy sources be under the control of humanistic public institutions.
Salvador Dali— the myth and reality of art of the XX century. Of course, not since childhood, but already during his lifetime, his name was surrounded by a halo of world fame. No one but Pablo Picasso could match his fame. Despite the fact that we know quite a few well-reasoned, albeit sometimes opposite, versions of the phenomenon of this outstanding artist, they cannot finally convince us of the correctness of individual points of view of this or that author or win over one of them. Apparently, this is inevitable. After all, just as in nature there are inexplicable phenomena, so in art much is completely incomprehensible.
Trying to get closer to understanding creativity Dali, let's turn to his own thoughts and judgments: “... when the Renaissance wanted to imitate Immortal Greece, this turned out to be Raphael. Ingres wanted to imitate Raphael, from this came Ingres. Cezanne wanted to imitate Poussin - Cezanne turned out. Dali wanted to imitate Meissonier, and this resulted in Dali. Nothing comes of those who do not want to imitate anything. And I want to know about it. After pop art and op art, art pompier will appear, but such art will be multiplied by everything that is of value, and by all, even the most insane, experiments in this grandiose tragedy called Modern Art (modern art).
Dali never ceases to amaze the audience's imagination with the paradoxical nature of the figurative worldview, asserting its monopoly on ingenious unsurpassedness. With inexhaustible fantasy, extravagance of nature, seeming absurdity, unmotivated actions, hypertrophied ambition, he created the ground for the mythologization of his own person. Dali possessed a truly universal gift and managed to brilliantly realize his talent in various fields of creativity - in the visual arts, cinema, literature ... Art criticism and art criticism, partly contrary to Dali's idea of \u200b\u200bhis own exclusivity, simplifying their task, determined his leading place within the conventional boundaries one artistic direction - surrealism. But, apparently, the time will come when this will no longer be enough and the existing theoretical model will be replaced by a more in-depth and complex attitude towards the legacy of the great master. Perhaps only the future is given to feel a certain closeness of Dali's art to the spiritual quest of Russian culture, the genius of N. Gogol, F. Dostoevsky, M. Bulgakov, their universal phantasmagoria. The experience of such parallels, in our opinion, would be fruitful, would allow us to get out of the narrowed circle of established views, but today we are not sufficiently prepared for this. Contrary to such predictions, let us return to the traditional model of the history of surrealism and its role in its development today. Dali.
Industrialization has fundamentally changed the world. New energy sources enabled mechanization; communications and vehicles were developed.
Reasons for industrialization
Many factors contributed to the accelerated development of industrialization in Europe in the 19th century. As a result of the development of large empires, especially the British Empire, powerful trading opportunities appeared in Europe. Growing export markets contributed to an increase in labor productivity, and modern factories gradually began to be built. The rapid expansion of the empire in the 18th century contributed to the acceleration of industrial development in Great Britain. By the end of the 18th and beginning of the 19th century, states such as Belgium and Germany also began to create industrial production. Industrialization took over new areas, from England to Northern and Western Europe, later it crossed the Atlantic and reached the east coast of the United States.
This process was facilitated by the intensive development of the natural sciences and technology. Probably one of the most important inventions of the time was the use of steam to power machines in factories. Coal was needed to generate steam, and some of Europe's strongest industrial regions were located near vast coal deposits. Great Britain and benefited from coal mines in South Wales, Midland and Northern England. In Germany, the coal industry was developed primarily with its deep coal seams extending widely to the north.
In addition, industrial regions benefited from being close to important transportation and trade routes such as rivers, canals or seas. For example, in France, the Moselle and Marne rivers were ideal for transporting coal, and Marseille, located in Provence, opened access to the Mediterranean Sea.
The first photograph of the site (circa 1850) where the major city of Salt Lake City was later built. Left: An 1883 engraving shows a worker (and foreman) in an English cotton mill.
The advantage of Great Britain was that on a relatively narrow island, all the cities were located close to the sea. In addition, a network of waterways, consisting of rivers and canals, provided an easy way to transport grains and finished products. The rivers of northern Germany and Belgium were of equal importance. Along with a convenient geographical location, the provision of labor force, which was used in factories, played an important role.
As a result of years of privatization of common land, many residents of rural areas of the UK have been forced to go to the cities in search of work. On the European continent, the flight from the villages to the big cities began a little later. Major port cities such as Liverpool, Marseille, Hamburg and Rotterdam quickly developed into major industrial centers.
Impact of industrialization
The emergence of industrial society completely changed the world. At the beginning of the 20th century, countries with a high degree of industrialization were not only economically but also politically strong states. The dominant nations of Germany, France, Great Britain, Japan and the United States relied on the developed economies of their countries. Industrialization, combined with the capitalist mode of the economy, has created an extremely effective and productive tool for supporting and financing the state. In the course of the 20th century, market-oriented capitalist democracies emerged as the richest countries in the world.
In the 19th century, the direct impact of the industrial revolution was not always positive. Due to the urbanization of cities and the influx of the poor, many felt the deterioration of living conditions. There was hunger and disease. The distance between factory owners (the capitalists) who wanted to keep costs as low as possible to gain profit and the underpaid and oppressed workers (the proletariat) created class conflicts. Poor living conditions throughout 19th-century Europe influenced philosophers such as Karl Marx, who published The Communist Manifesto in 1848. Industrialization caused not only social, but also political changes. The emergence of communism as an opposition to capitalism led to fundamental changes in some countries. Especially significant was the coup in Russia - the Great October Revolution.
English physicist Michael Faraday, who discovered electromagnetism and thereby laid the foundations for the dynamo and electric generator.
Steam machine
Steam engines were a major contributor to industrialization, as they provided power to drive pumps, locomotives, and steamboats.
The pressurized steam generated in the machine enters the turbine or piston and sets them in motion. This movement is transferred to the wheels of the car. Although the date of this invention is considered to be 1698, many improvements were required before the steamboat was first equipped with a steam engine in 1802. We owe the improvement of the steam engine to the Scot James Watt. Watt was born in 1732 and devoted his whole life to improving the steam engine, as a result of which, during the era of the industrial revolution, it began to be used as a source of energy and drive. Watt invented a separate chamber for steam condensation and thereby increased the efficiency of the machine. The barometer, centrifugal regulator and flywheel are also his inventions. One of Watt's steam engines was installed on the first experimental steamship, the Claremont, built in 1807 on the Hudson.
Railway
The creation of railways with steam locomotives was a significant contribution to industrialization. Simple types of railway functioned in Great Britain in the 19th century. On a primitive track made of stone and iron, horses dragged carts to quarries and mines. The steam engine changed the situation radically. Miner Richard Trevithick from Cornwall in 1804 docked a steam engine and a trolley with a tipping body. Inspired by this result, George Stephenson created the first working steam locomotive that could pull wagons. Opened in 1830 between London and Liverpool, the first railway made a splash in the construction of railways. Finally, the British state intervened and in 1850 standardized the gauge, which by that time had up to ten gauges. Thus, Britain became the first country to have at its disposal a properly functioning national railway network. Now, railways were being built everywhere in Europe, which connected distant areas and contributed to the integration of the economy.
Textile industry
Factories equipped with machines became the production centers of national industry. In parallel with the growth of mechanization of production processes and the rapid growth of labor productivity, gigantic factories arose everywhere in Europe, equipped with machines that were served by countless workers. Revolutionary advances in the development of textile production were made with the first water-powered spinning machine, invented by Arkwright in 1769, and the invention of the steam-powered power loom, invented by Cartwright in 1792. In America, Eli Whitney developed a gin in 1793 to automatically separate the cotton fiber from the seed. The resulting increase in the production of raw cotton caused prices to fall and demand to rise. In the middle of the 19th century, America produced three-quarters of the world's cotton fabrics. A large amount of this commodity came from the southern states and on to England and New England for further processing. The factories produced not only cheap clothes, but also dishes, glassware, watches - everything that was in demand.
Telegraph
A prosperous economy depended on communications, and postal systems emerged throughout Europe in the 19th century. Around 1875, the Universal Postal Union was organized to carry out postal correspondence with other countries. However, only with the creation of the telegraph did it become possible to carry out direct and instantaneous communication with remote objects. In 1837, an electric telegraph was first tested in London, and in 1838, Samuel Morse patented the telegraph he invented in America.
After the successful laying of the first submarine cable between North America and Europe in 1866, transatlantic telephone communications became possible.
Electricity
In 1831, Michael Faraday demonstrated the effect of converting electrical energy into mechanical energy. The electromagnetism discovered by him served as the basis for the development of a dynamo and an electric generator. In 1837, he created a dynamo with increased electrical power, and the technique, which at first was almost inaccessible and very expensive, gradually gained popularity. Until the beginning of the 20th century, people learned to generate relatively cheap electricity only from the energy of the movement of water. In the mountainous regions of Italy, where there was no coal, most factories were powered by electricity generated by generators powered by the movement of water. In Florence, in 1890, the first electric trams were put into operation. In the 1930s, almost all of Europe was electrified, and states such as Russia, which in the 19th century experienced a slower rather than faster pace of industrialization, began to develop rapidly.
The factory shop of one of the Krupp steel factories in Essen, the largest weapons forges of the German Empire.
Weapon
Firearms began to be created in the 16th century, and their role gradually increased. A consequence of the technological innovations of the 19th century was the rapid change in military weapons. The invention of the machine gun led to subsequent changes in the production of weapons. In 1862, the Gatling gun was invented, which quickly fired balls and was the first automatic reloading firearm. For the first time such weapons were used in the American Civil War and later began to be used in the US Navy. The mitrailleuses made in France consisted of 37 bundled gun barrels. In 1883, the Maxim machine gun, invented by an American, was the first to use recoil energy after a shot to reload cartridges, which made it possible to fire a whole series of shots. One of the greatest inventors of weapons is considered to be Alfred Krupp from Essen, who turned a small family business into the largest and most successful manufacturing enterprise in Europe. When Krupp took over the firm, it had five employees. After his death in 1887, 20,000 people were already employed in production - proof of the huge need for weapons in the 19th century.