The beginning of space exploration is brief. The most important dates in space exploration
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Key dates for astronautics:
January
January 2, 1959 Launch of the space rocket "Dream". Going beyond the limits of gravity (USSR).
4 January 1959 The Luna-1 station passed at a distance of 6,000 kilometers from the surface of the Moon and entered a heliocentric orbit. It became the world's first artificial satellite of the Sun.
January 15 2006. The Stardust station delivered samples of comet Wild 2 to earth.
January 16 1969 The first docking of two manned spacecraft Soyuz-4 and Soyuz-5 was carried out.
January 20, 1978. Launch of the first automatic cargo transport ship Progress (USSR) into orbit.
January 31, 1966 The launch of the Luna-9 spacecraft (USSR), which for the first time in the world carried out a soft landing on the Moon and transmitted an image of the lunar surface to Earth.
February
March
March 1 1966 The Venera 3 station reached the surface of Venus for the first time, delivering the USSR pennant. This was the world's first flight of a spacecraft from Earth to another planet.
March 3, 1972 Launch spaceship"Pioneer 10" (USA). On December 4, 1973, the spacecraft flew at a distance of 131 thousand km from Jupiter and conducted the first studies of this planet from a “close” distance. This is the first device to leave the solar system.
March 17 2011 Mercury MESSENGER station.
18th of March 1965 d. The first human spacewalk in history was completed. Cosmonaut Alexei Leonov performed a spacewalk from Voskhod 2.
March 30, 1974 Launch of the artificial Earth satellite “ATS-6” (USA) into orbit close to geostationary. The first experiments on direct television broadcasting to small-sized antennas.
April
April 12, 1961 Yuri Gagarin made the world's first flight into space on the Vostok spacecraft (USSR). 2016 marks the 55th anniversary of the first human flight.
April 12, 1981 Launch into orbit of the first reusable transport spacecraft, the Space Shuttle (Columbia), with J. Young and R. Crippen (USA).
April 19, 1971 Launching into orbit the first orbital station-laboratory "Salyut" (USSR).
April 24 1990 Launch of the Hubble telescope into low-Earth orbit.
June
June 12, 1967 Launch of the Venera-4 spacecraft to the planet Venus (USSR). The spacecraft, having covered a distance of approximately 350 million km, entered the planet's atmosphere and for the first time carried out a smooth descent in the atmosphere of another planet.
June 14 – 19, 1963 Flight of V.F. Bykovsky. The duration of this flight was 4 days 23 hours 6 minutes, the flight took place in conjunction with the flight of the Vostok-6 spacecraft, piloted by Valentina Tereshkova.
June 16 1963 The world's first flight into space by a female cosmonaut (Valentina Tereshkova) was made on the Vostok-6 spacecraft.
June 24 2000 The NEAR Shoemaker station became the first artificial satellite of the asteroid (433 Eros).
June 30, 1982 Launching into orbit the first rescue satellite “Cosmos-1383” (USSR) of the international Cospas-Sarsat system. Such satellites make it possible not only to receive distress signals (SOS), but also to determine the coordinates of those in distress.
30 June 2004 The Cassini station became the first artificial satellite of Saturn.
July
July 16, 1969 The launch of the Apollo 11 spacecraft (USA), which reached the Moon on July 21 and made the first landing of people on its surface. These were Americans Neil Armstrong and Edwin Aldrin.
July 17, 1975 First docking of two manned spacecraft different countries: “Soyuz-19” (USSR) with A.A. Leonov and V.N. Kubasov and “Apollo” (USA) with T. Stafford, D. Slayton and V. Brand.
21 July 1969 The first landing of a man on the Moon (N. Armstrong) as part of the lunar expedition of the Apollo 11 spacecraft, which delivered to Earth, including the first samples of lunar soil.
July 23, 1972 Launching into orbit the first artificial Earth satellite (Landsat-1, USA) to study the natural resources of our planet from space.
August
August 6 - 7, 1961 German Titov made a space flight lasting 1 day 1 hour, making 17 revolutions around the Earth, flying more than 700 thousand kilometers. At the time of the flight, German Titov was 25 years and 330 days old, making him the youngest of all cosmonauts to have been in space.
August 11, 1962 The world's first group flight was completed by cosmonauts A. G. Nikolaev (Vostok-3 spacecraft) and P. R. Popovich (Vostok-4). It was also the first time the spacesuit had been removed from the spacecraft. This experiment was carried out by A. Nikolaev.
12th of August 1962 The world's first group space flight was completed on the Vostok-3 and Vostok-4 spacecraft. The maximum approach of the ships was about 6.5 km.
August 19 1960 The first ever orbital flight into space of living beings was completed with a successful return to Earth. This flight was carried out on the Sputnik 5 spacecraft by the dogs Belka and Strelka.
August 19, 1964. Launch of the first communications satellite “Sincom-3” (USA) into a geostationary orbit with an orbital period of 24 hours, so that the satellite always “hangs” over the same point on the Earth’s surface.
August 20, 1975 The Viking 1 spacecraft (USA) was launched, which made the first successful soft landing on the planet Mars on July 20, 1976 and transmitted a television image of the Martian surface to Earth.
September
September 12, 1959 The launch of the Luna-2 spacecraft (USSR), which reached the surface of the Moon.
September 14 1959 The Luna-2 station was the first in the world to reach the surface of the Moon in the region of the Mare Serenity near the craters Aristyllus, Archimedes and Autolycus, delivering a pennant with the coat of arms of the USSR.
September 15th 1968 d. The first return of the spacecraft (“Zond-5”) to Earth after flying around the Moon. There were living creatures on board: turtles, fruit flies, worms, plants, seeds, bacteria.
September 24 1970 The Luna-16 station collected and subsequently delivered to Earth (by the Luna-16 station) samples of lunar soil. This was the first unmanned spacecraft to deliver rock samples to Earth from another cosmic body (that is, in this case, from the Moon).
October
The 4th of October 1959 G. The automatic interplanetary station “Luna-3” was launched, which for the first time in the world photographed the side of the Moon invisible from the Earth. Also during the flight, for the first time in the world, a gravity maneuver was carried out in practice.
October 4, 1957 was launched first artificial earth satellite. The mass of Sputnik 1 was 83.6 kg. The Eighteenth International Congress of Astronautics approved this day as the beginning space age. The first satellite “spoke Russian.” The New York Times wrote: “This concrete symbol of man's future liberation from the forces that chain him to the Earth was created and launched by Soviet scientists and technicians. Everyone on Earth should be grateful to them. This is a feat of which all humanity can be proud.”
October 12, 1964 The first multi-seat spacecraft, Voskhod-1, was launched with cosmonauts Vladimir Komarov (ship commander), Konstantin Feoktistov (researcher) and Boris Egorov (doctor). Thus, the era of the Voskhods began, which, compared to the Vostoks, had new cabins that allowed cosmonauts to fly without spacesuits for the first time, new instrumentation, improved viewing conditions, improved soft landing systems: the landing speed was practically reduced to zero.
22 of October 1975 The Venera-9 station became the first artificial satellite of Venus.
October 30 1967 The first docking of two unmanned spacecraft “Cosmos-186” and “Cosmos-188” was carried out. (USSR).
November
November 2, 1978 The longest manned flight in the history of cosmonautics (140 days) was successfully completed. Cosmonauts Vladimir Kovalenok and Alexander Ivanchenkov successfully landed 180 km southeast of the city of Dzhezkazgan. During their work on board the Salyut-6 - Soyuz - Progress orbital complex, a wide program of scientific, technical and medical-biological experiments was carried out, research was carried out natural resources and the study of the natural environment.
the 3rd of November 1957 The second artificial satellite of the Earth, Sputnik-2, was launched, which for the first time launched a living creature into space - the dog Laika.
the 13th of November 1971 The Mariner 9 station became the first artificial satellite of Mars.
15th of November 1988 The first and only space flight of the Buran spacecraft. The reusable orbital ship Buran, launched into space by the unique Energia rocket system, completed a two-orbit flight in orbit around the Earth and landed on the landing strip of the Baikonur Cosmodrome. For the first time in the world, the landing of a reusable spacecraft was carried out automatically.
Henrietta Lacks. The origins of space cell biology.
December 2nd 1971 The first soft landing of the spacecraft on Mars: “Mars-3”.
December 7 1995 The Galileo station became the first artificial satellite of Jupiter.
December 15 1970 The world's first soft landing on the surface of Venus: Venera 7.
December 18, 1958 The first communications satellite was launched - an active relay (Atlas-Skor, USA).
Space exploration began in ancient times, when man was just learning to count by the stars, identifying constellations. And only four hundred years ago, after the invention of the telescope, astronomy began to develop rapidly, bringing new discoveries to science.
The 17th century was a transitional century for astronomy, when they began to apply the scientific method in space exploration, thanks to which the Milky Way and other star clusters and nebulae were discovered. And with the creation of a spectroscope, which can decompose the light emitted by a celestial object through a prism, scientists have learned to measure data from celestial bodies, such as temperature, chemical composition, mass and other measurements.
Beginning with late XIX century, astronomy entered a phase of numerous discoveries and achievements, the main breakthrough of science in the 20th century was the launch of the first satellite into space, the first manned flight into space, access to outer space, landing on the moon and space missions to the planets of the solar system. The inventions of super-powerful quantum computers in the 19th century also promise many new studies, both of already known planets and stars, and the discovery of new, distant corners of the universe.
The history of the development of astronautics is a story about people with extraordinary minds, about the desire to understand the laws of the Universe and about the desire to surpass the familiar and possible. The exploration of outer space, which began in the last century, has given the world many discoveries. They concern both objects in distant galaxies and completely terrestrial processes. The development of astronautics contributed to the improvement of technology, led to discoveries in the most different areas knowledge, from physics to medicine. However, this process took a lot of time.
Lost Labor
The development of astronautics in Russia and abroad began long before the appearance of the first scientific developments in this regard were only theoretical and substantiated the very possibility of space flights. In our country, one of the pioneers of astronautics at the tip of his pen was Konstantin Eduardovich Tsiolkovsky. “One of” - because he was ahead of him by Nikolai Ivanovich Kibalchich, who was sentenced to death for the assassination attempt on Alexander II and, a few days before his hanging, developed a project for an apparatus capable of delivering a person into space. This was in 1881, but Kibalchich’s project was not published until 1918.
Village teacher
Tsiolkovsky, whose article on the theoretical foundations of space flight was published in 1903, did not know about Kibalchich’s work. At that time he taught arithmetic and geometry at the Kaluga School. His famous scientific article “Exploration of world spaces using rocket instruments” touched upon the possibilities of using rockets in space. The development of astronautics in Russia, then still tsarist, began precisely with Tsiolkovsky. He developed a project for the construction of a rocket capable of carrying a person to the stars, defended the idea of diversity of life in the Universe, and spoke about the need to construct artificial satellites and orbital stations.
In parallel, theoretical cosmonautics developed abroad. However, there were practically no connections between scientists either at the beginning of the century or later, in the 1930s. Robert Goddard, Hermann Oberth and Esnault-Peltry, an American, a German and a Frenchman respectively, who worked on similar problems, knew nothing about Tsiolkovsky’s work for a long time. Even then, the disunity of peoples affected the pace of development of the new industry.
Pre-war years and the Great Patriotic War
The development of astronautics continued in the 20-40s with the help of the Gas Dynamics Laboratory and the Jet Propulsion Research Groups, and then the Jet Research Institute. The best engineering minds of the country worked within the walls of scientific institutions, including F.A. Tsander, M.K. Tikhonravov and S.P. Korolev. In the laboratories they worked on the creation of the first jet vehicles using liquid and solid fuel, and the theoretical basis of astronautics was developed.
In the pre-war years and during the Second World War, jet engines and rocket planes were designed and created. During this period, for obvious reasons, much attention was paid to the development of cruise missiles and unguided rockets.
Korolev and V-2
The first modern combat missile in history was created in Germany during the war under the leadership of Wernher von Braun. Then the V-2, or V-2, caused a lot of trouble. After the defeat of Germany, von Braun was sent to America, where he began working on new projects, including the development of rockets for space flights.
In 1945, after the end of the war, a group of Soviet engineers arrived in Germany to study the V-2. Among them was Korolev. He was appointed chief engineering and technical director of the Nordhausen Institute, formed in Germany in the same year. In addition to studying German missiles, Korolev and his colleagues were developing new projects. In the 50s, the design bureau under his leadership created the R-7. This two-stage rocket was able to develop the first and ensure the launch of multi-ton vehicles into low-Earth orbit.
Stages of development of astronautics
The American advantage in preparing spacecraft, associated with the work of von Braun, became a thing of the past when the USSR launched the first satellite on October 4, 1957. From that moment on, the development of astronautics went faster. In the 50s and 60s, several experiments were carried out with animals. Dogs and monkeys have been in space.
As a result, scientists collected invaluable information that made it possible for a person to comfortably stay in space. At the beginning of 1959, it was possible to achieve the second escape velocity.
The advanced development of domestic cosmonautics was accepted throughout the world when Yuri Gagarin took to the skies. Without exaggeration, this great event took place in 1961. From this day on, man began to penetrate into the vast expanses surrounding the Earth.
- October 12, 1964 - a device with several people on board was launched into orbit (USSR);
- March 18, 1965 - first (USSR);
- February 3, 1966 - first landing of a vehicle on the Moon (USSR);
- December 24, 1968 - the first launch of a manned spacecraft into Earth satellite orbit (USA);
- July 20, 1969 - day (USA);
- April 19, 1971 - the orbital station was launched for the first time (USSR);
- July 17, 1975 - the first docking of two ships (Soviet and American) occurred;
- April 12, 1981 - the first Space Shuttle (USA) went into space.
Development of modern astronautics
Today, space exploration continues. The successes of the past have borne fruit - man has already visited the Moon and is preparing for direct acquaintance with Mars. However, manned flight programs are now developing less than projects of automatic interplanetary stations. The current state of astronautics is such that the devices being created are capable of transmitting information about distant Saturn, Jupiter and Pluto to Earth, visiting Mercury and even exploring meteorites.
At the same time, space tourism is developing. International contacts are of great importance today. gradually comes to the idea that great breakthroughs and discoveries happen faster and more often if we combine the efforts and capabilities of different countries.
The history of space exploration is the most striking example of the triumph of the human mind over rebellious matter in the shortest possible time. From the moment a man-made object first overcame Earth's gravity and developed sufficient speed to enter Earth's orbit, only a little over fifty years have passed - nothing by the standards of history! Most of the planet's population vividly remembers the times when a flight to the moon was considered something out of science fiction, and those who dreamed of piercing the heavenly heights were considered, at best, crazy people not dangerous to society. Today, spaceships not only “travel the vast expanse”, successfully maneuvering in conditions of minimal gravity, but also deliver cargo, astronauts and space tourists into Earth orbit. Moreover, the duration of a space flight can now be as long as desired: the shift of Russian cosmonauts on the ISS, for example, lasts 6-7 months. And over the past half century, man has managed to walk on the Moon and photograph its dark side, blessed Mars, Jupiter, Saturn and Mercury with artificial satellites, “recognized by sight” distant nebulae with the help of the Hubble telescope, and is seriously thinking about colonizing Mars. And although we have not yet succeeded in making contact with aliens and angels (at least officially), let us not despair - after all, everything is just beginning!
Dreams of space and attempts at writing
For the first time, progressive humanity believed in the reality of flight to distant worlds at the end of the 19th century. It was then that it became clear that if the aircraft was given the speed necessary to overcome gravity and maintained it for a sufficient time, it would be able to go beyond the Earth’s atmosphere and gain a foothold in orbit, like the Moon, revolving around the Earth. The problem was in the engines. The existing specimens at that time either spat extremely powerfully but briefly with bursts of energy, or worked on the principle of “gasp, groan and go away little by little.” The first was more suitable for bombs, the second - for carts. In addition, it was impossible to regulate the thrust vector and thereby influence the trajectory of the apparatus: a vertical launch inevitably led to its rounding, and as a result the body fell to the ground, never reaching space; the horizontal one, with such a release of energy, threatened to destroy all living things around (as if the current ballistic missile were launched flat). Finally, at the beginning of the 20th century, researchers turned their attention to a rocket engine, the operating principle of which has been known to mankind since the turn of our era: fuel burns in the rocket body, simultaneously lightening its mass, and the released energy moves the rocket forward. The first rocket capable of launching an object beyond the limits of gravity was designed by Tsiolkovsky in 1903.
View of Earth from the ISS
First artificial satellite
Time passed, and although two world wars greatly slowed down the process of creating rockets for peaceful use, space progress still did not stand still. The key moment of the post-war period was the adoption of the so-called package rocket layout, which is still used in astronautics today. Its essence is the simultaneous use of several rockets placed symmetrically with respect to the center of mass of the body that needs to be launched into Earth orbit. This provides a powerful, stable and uniform thrust, sufficient for the object to move at a constant speed of 7.9 km/s, necessary to overcome gravity. And so, on October 4, 1957, a new, or rather the first, era in space exploration began - the launch of the first artificial Earth satellite, like everything ingenious, simply called “Sputnik-1”, using the R-7 rocket, designed under the leadership of Sergei Korolev. The silhouette of the R-7, the ancestor of all subsequent space rockets, is still recognizable today in the ultra-modern Soyuz launch vehicle, which successfully sends “trucks” and “cars” into orbit with cosmonauts and tourists on board - the same four “legs” of the package design and red nozzles. The first satellite was microscopic, just over half a meter in diameter and weighed only 83 kg. It completed a full revolution around the Earth in 96 minutes. The “star life” of the iron pioneer of astronautics lasted three months, but during this period he covered a fantastic path of 60 million km!
The first living creatures in orbit
The success of the first launch inspired the designers, and the prospect of sending a living creature into space and returning it unharmed no longer seemed impossible. Just a month after the launch of Sputnik 1, the first animal, the dog Laika, went into orbit on board the second artificial Earth satellite. Her goal was honorable, but sad - to test the survival of living beings in space flight conditions. Moreover, the return of the dog was not planned... The launch and insertion of the satellite into orbit was successful, but after four orbits around the Earth, due to an error in the calculations, the temperature inside the device rose excessively, and Laika died. The satellite itself rotated in space for another 5 months, and then lost speed and burned up in dense layers of the atmosphere. The first shaggy cosmonauts to greet their “senders” with a joyful bark upon their return were the textbook Belka and Strelka, who set off to conquer the heavens on the fifth satellite in August 1960. Their flight lasted just over a day, and during this time the dogs managed to fly around the planet 17 times. All this time, they were watched from monitor screens in the Mission Control Center - by the way, it was precisely because of the contrast that white dogs were chosen - because the image was then black and white. As a result of the launch, the spacecraft itself was also finalized and finally approved - in just 8 months, the first person will go into space in a similar apparatus.
In addition to dogs, both before and after 1961, monkeys (macaques, squirrel monkeys and chimpanzees), cats, turtles, as well as all sorts of little things - flies, beetles, etc., were in space.
During the same period, the USSR launched the first artificial satellite of the Sun, the Luna-2 station managed to softly land on the surface of the planet, and the first photographs of the side of the Moon invisible from Earth were obtained.
The day of April 12, 1961 divided the history of the exploration of space into two periods - “when man dreamed of the stars” and “since man conquered space.”
Man in space
The day of April 12, 1961 divided the history of the exploration of space into two periods - “when man dreamed of the stars” and “since man conquered space.” At 9:07 Moscow time, the Vostok-1 spacecraft with the world's first cosmonaut on board, Yuri Gagarin, was launched from launch pad No. 1 of the Baikonur Cosmodrome. Having made one revolution around the Earth and traveled 41 thousand km, 90 minutes after the start, Gagarin landed near Saratov, becoming for many years the most famous, revered and beloved person on the planet. His “let’s go!” and “everything is visible very clearly - space is black - the earth is blue” were included in the list of the most famous phrases of humanity, his open smile, ease and cordiality melted the hearts of people around the world. The first manned flight into space was controlled from Earth; Gagarin himself was more of a passenger, albeit an excellently prepared one. It should be noted that the flight conditions were far from those that are now offered to space tourists: Gagarin experienced eight to tenfold overloads, there was a period when the ship was literally tumbling, and behind the windows the skin was burning and the metal was melting. During the flight, several failures occurred in various systems of the ship, but fortunately, the astronaut was not injured.
Following Gagarin's flight, significant milestones in the history of space exploration fell one after another: the world's first group space flight was completed, then the first female cosmonaut Valentina Tereshkova went into space (1963), the first multi-seat spacecraft flew, Alexey Leonov became the first a man who performed a spacewalk (1965) - and all these grandiose events are entirely the merit of the Russian cosmonautics. Finally, on July 21, 1969, the first man landed on the Moon: American Neil Armstrong took that “small, big step.”
Best View in the Solar System
Cosmonautics - today, tomorrow and always
Today, space travel is taken for granted. Hundreds of satellites and thousands of other necessary and useless objects fly above us, seconds before sunrise from the bedroom window you can see the planes of the solar panels of the International Space Station flashing in rays still invisible from the ground, space tourists with enviable regularity set off to “surf the open spaces” (thereby embodying the ironic phrase “if you really want to, you can fly into space”) and the era of commercial suborbital flights with almost two departures daily is about to begin. The exploration of space by controlled vehicles is absolutely amazing: there are pictures of stars that exploded long ago, and HD images of distant galaxies, and strong evidence of the possibility of the existence of life on other planets. Billionaire corporations are already coordinating plans to build space hotels in Earth’s orbit, and projects for the colonization of our neighboring planets no longer seem like an excerpt from the novels of Asimov or Clark. One thing is obvious: once having overcome earth's gravity, humanity will again and again strive upward, to the endless worlds of stars, galaxies and universes. I would only like to wish that the beauty of the night sky and myriads of twinkling stars, still alluring, mysterious and beautiful, as in the first days of creation, never leaves us.
Space reveals its secrets
Academician Blagonravov dwelled on some new achievements of Soviet science: in the field of space physics.
Beginning on January 2, 1959, each flight of Soviet space rockets conducted a study of radiation at large distances from the Earth. The so-called outer radiation belt of the Earth, discovered by Soviet scientists, was subjected to detailed study. Studying the composition of particles in radiation belts using various scintillation and gas-discharge counters located on satellites and space rockets made it possible to establish that the outer belt contains electrons of significant energies up to a million electron volts and even higher. When braking in the shells of spacecraft, they create intense piercing X-ray radiation. During the flight of the automatic interplanetary station towards Venus, the average energy of this X-ray radiation was determined at distances from 30 to 40 thousand kilometers from the center of the Earth, amounting to about 130 kiloelectronvolts. This value changed little with the distance, which allows one to judge that the energy spectrum of electrons in this region is constant.
Already the first studies showed the instability of the outer radiation belt, movements of maximum intensity associated with magnetic storms caused by solar corpuscular flows. Recent measurements from an automatic interplanetary station launched towards Venus have shown that although changes in intensity occur closer to Earth, the outer boundary of the outer belt in a quiet state magnetic field for almost two years it remained constant both in intensity and spatial location. Research recent years also made it possible to construct a model of the ionized gas shell of the Earth based on experimental data for a period close to the maximum of solar activity. Our studies have shown that at altitudes of less than a thousand kilometers, the main role is played by atomic oxygen ions, and starting from altitudes lying between one and two thousand kilometers, hydrogen ions predominate in the ionosphere. The extent of the outermost region of the Earth's ionized gas shell, the so-called hydrogen “corona,” is very large.
Processing of the results of measurements carried out on the first Soviet space rockets showed that at altitudes of approximately 50 to 75 thousand kilometers outside the outer radiation belt, electron flows with energies exceeding 200 electron volts were detected. This allowed us to assume the existence of a third outermost belt of charged particles with a high flux intensity, but lower energy. After the launch of the American Pioneer V space rocket in March 1960, data were obtained that confirmed our assumptions about the existence of a third belt of charged particles. This belt is apparently formed as a result of the penetration of solar corpuscular flows into the peripheral regions of the Earth's magnetic field.
New data were obtained regarding the spatial location of the Earth's radiation belts, and an area of increased radiation was discovered in the southern part of the Atlantic Ocean, which is associated with a corresponding terrestrial magnetic anomaly. In this area, the lower boundary of the Earth's internal radiation belt drops to 250 - 300 kilometers from the Earth's surface.
The flights of the second and third satellites provided new information that made it possible to map the distribution of radiation by ion intensity over the surface of the globe. (The speaker demonstrates this map to the audience).
For the first time, currents created by positive ions included in solar corpuscular radiation were recorded outside the Earth's magnetic field at distances of the order of hundreds of thousands of kilometers from the Earth, using three-electrode charged particle traps installed on Soviet space rockets. In particular, on the automatic interplanetary station launched towards Venus, traps were installed oriented towards the Sun, one of which was intended to record solar corpuscular radiation. On February 17, during a communication session with the automatic interplanetary station, its passage through a significant flow of corpuscles (with a density of about 10 9 particles per square centimeter per second) was recorded. This observation coincided with the observation of a magnetic storm. Such experiments open the way to establishing quantitative relationships between geomagnetic disturbances and the intensity of solar corpuscular flows. On the second and third satellites, the radiation hazard caused by cosmic radiation outside the Earth's atmosphere was studied in quantitative terms. The same satellites were used to study the chemical composition of primary cosmic radiation. The new equipment installed on the satellite ships included a photoemulsion device designed to expose and develop stacks of thick-film emulsions directly on board the ship. The results obtained are of great scientific value for elucidating the biological influence of cosmic radiation.
Flight technical problems
Next, the speaker focused on a number of significant problems that ensured the organization of human flight into space. First of all, it was necessary to resolve the issue of methods for launching a heavy ship into orbit, for which it was necessary to have powerful rocket technology. We have created such a technique. However, it was not enough to inform the ship of a speed exceeding the first cosmic speed. High precision of launching the ship into a pre-calculated orbit was also necessary.
It should be borne in mind that the requirements for the accuracy of orbital movement will increase in the future. This will require movement correction using special propulsion systems. Related to the problem of trajectory correction is the problem of maneuvering a directional change in the flight trajectory of a spacecraft. Maneuvers can be carried out with the help of impulses transmitted by a jet engine in individual specially selected sections of trajectories, or with the help of thrust that lasts for a long time, for the creation of which electric jet engines (ion, plasma) are used.
Examples of maneuvers include transition to a higher orbit, transition to an orbit entering the dense layers of the atmosphere for braking and landing in a given area. The latter type of maneuver was used when landing Soviet satellite ships with dogs on board and when landing the Vostok satellite.
To carry out a maneuver, perform a number of measurements and for other purposes, it is necessary to ensure stabilization of the satellite ship and its orientation in space, maintained for a certain period of time or changed according to a given program.
Turning to the problem of returning to Earth, the speaker focused on the following issues: speed deceleration, protection from heating when moving in dense layers of the atmosphere, ensuring landing in a given area.
The braking of the spacecraft, necessary to dampen the cosmic speed, can be carried out either using a special powerful propulsion system, or by braking the apparatus in the atmosphere. The first of these methods requires very large reserves of weight. Using atmospheric resistance for braking allows you to get by with relatively little additional weight.
The complex of problems associated with the development of protective coatings during braking of a vehicle in the atmosphere and the organization of the entry process with overloads acceptable for the human body represents a complex scientific and technical problem.
The rapid development of space medicine has put on the agenda the issue of biological telemetry as the main means of medical monitoring and scientific medical research during space flight. The use of radio telemetry leaves a specific imprint on the methodology and technology of biomedical research, since a number of special requirements are imposed on the equipment placed on board spacecraft. This equipment should have very light weight and small dimensions. It should be designed for minimal energy consumption. In addition, the onboard equipment must operate stably during the active phase and during descent, when vibrations and overloads are present.
Sensors designed to convert physiological parameters into electrical signals must be miniature and designed for long-term operation. They should not create inconvenience for the astronaut.
The widespread use of radio telemetry in space medicine forces researchers to pay serious attention to the design of such equipment, as well as to matching the volume of information necessary for transmission with the capacity of radio channels. Since new challenges facing space medicine will lead to further deepening of research and the need to significantly increase the number of recorded parameters, the introduction of systems that store information and coding methods will be required.
In conclusion, the speaker dwelled on the question of why the option of orbiting the Earth was chosen for the first space travel. This option represented a decisive step towards the conquest of outer space. They provided research into the issue of the influence of flight duration on a person, solved the problem of controlled flight, the problem of controlling the descent, entering the dense layers of the atmosphere and safely returning to Earth. Compared to this, the flight recently carried out in the USA seems of little value. It could be important as an intermediate option for checking a person’s condition during the acceleration stage, during overloads during descent; but after Yu. Gagarin’s flight there was no longer a need for such a check. In this version of the experiment, the element of sensation certainly prevailed. The only value of this flight can be seen in testing the operation of the developed systems that ensure entry into the atmosphere and landing, but, as we have seen, the testing of similar systems developed in our Soviet Union for more difficult conditions was reliably carried out even before the first human space flight. Thus, the achievements achieved in our country on April 12, 1961 cannot be compared in any way with what has been achieved so far in the United States.
And no matter how hard, the academician says, people abroad who are hostile to the Soviet Union try to belittle the successes of our science and technology with their fabrications, the whole world evaluates these successes properly and sees how much our country has moved forward along the path of technical progress. I personally witnessed the delight and admiration that was caused by the news of the historic flight of our first cosmonaut among the broad masses of the Italian people.
The flight was extremely successful
Academician N. M. Sissakyan made a report on the biological problems of space flights. He described the main stages in the development of space biology and summed up some of the results of scientific biological research related to space flights.
The speaker cited the medical and biological characteristics of Yu. A. Gagarin's flight. In the cabin, barometric pressure was maintained within 750 - 770 millimeters of mercury, air temperature - 19 - 22 degrees Celsius, relative humidity - 62 - 71 percent.
In the pre-launch period, approximately 30 minutes before the launch of the spacecraft, the heart rate was 66 per minute, the respiratory rate was 24. Three minutes before the launch, some emotional stress manifested itself in an increase in the pulse rate to 109 beats per minute, breathing continued to remain even and calm.
At the moment the spacecraft took off and gradually gained speed, the heart rate increased to 140 - 158 per minute, the respiratory rate was 20 - 26. Changes in physiological indicators during the active phase of the flight, according to telemetric recordings of electrocardiograms and pneimograms, were within acceptable limits. By the end of the active section, the heart rate was already 109, and the respiration rate was 18 per minute. In other words, these indicators reached the values characteristic of the moment closest to the start.
During the transition to weightlessness and flight in this state, the indicators of the cardiovascular and respiratory systems consistently approached the initial values. So, already in the tenth minute of weightlessness, the pulse rate reached 97 beats per minute, breathing - 22. Performance was not impaired, movements retained coordination and the necessary accuracy.
During the descent section, during braking of the apparatus, when overloads arose again, short-term, rapidly passing periods of increased breathing were noted. However, already upon approaching the Earth, breathing became even, calm, with a frequency of about 16 per minute.
Three hours after landing, the heart rate was 68, breathing was 20 per minute, i.e., values characteristic of the calm, normal state of Yu. A. Gagarin.
All this indicates that the flight was extremely successful, the health and general condition of the cosmonaut during all parts of the flight was satisfactory. Life support systems were working normally.
In conclusion, the speaker focused on the most important upcoming problems of space biology.
- Drying organic liquids Wine spirit and its relatives
- Laboratory work: Production of methane and experiments with it Calcium carbide was used to dehydrate ethanol
- Model of error in the form of a random elementary function Mathematical model of measurement results of measurement error
- Questions for subject and object Basic geometric shapes