At what altitude do planes, satellites and spacecraft fly? Basics of astronomy: what is the temperature in space. At what distance is space.
The scientifically determined distance from the Earth to space, for example, in km (kilometers), is approximately the same as the distance from the surface of the planet to the edge of its atmosphere, where the universal cosmic vacuum begins. The highest altitude in the history of mankind's attempts to penetrate into space until the 70s was reached by the Gemini 11 ship, and it was 1372 km. But this was not yet the desired barrier and not even a tenth, but only a hundredth part of the required distance from the Earth.
What is space
The distance from space to Earth is a long journey, the end of which will be reached when crossing the line of the Earth's atmosphere and entering empty space. It begins around any planet when its protective layers end.
In the minds of ancient Greek astronomers, space should have been located exactly where the boundaries of near-Earth space filled with air were marked.
The geocentric system placed the Earth at the center of the universe, and the vacuum that enveloped it was an indispensable component of the world order.
Some facts should be noted:
- Space began with the end of the atmosphere, and in this regard nothing has changed. Modern science believes that the distance to outer space is approximately at the boundary of the atmospheric layers. But even on this issue there is no final opinion.
- Legally, the problem was resolved quite simply. The Fédération Aéronautique Internationale has made the Karman Line both the upper limit of the state below and the demarcation line between the atmosphere and outer space. By the way, outer space is an interesting oxymoron that combines two incompatible concepts - infinite Space and a limited distance between certain objects.
- For representatives of the IAF there was no dilemma as to what exactly was considered space. Since at this altitude the first escape velocity is required for flight, this means that an altitude of 100 kilometers determines at what distance from the Earth space begins. Incompetent sources write this, and the media, poorly versed in astronomical terms, report on heroic spacewalks by stratonauts or astronauts working on the ISS.
Earth's motion pattern
Distance from the planet to space and the ISS
The International Space Station, permanently located from the earth's surface at a distance ranging from 353 to 400 km, is also not in outer space. Any scientist with scientific knowledge about the atmosphere will say that even 400 km is still a rarefied earth’s atmosphere, or more precisely, the thermosphere. And then there is the exosphere, the length of which is 10 thousand kilometers.
Space station
The ISS gave NASA the basis to set the boundary of space at an altitude of 122 km. Because this is where the ship can only maneuver using a rocket engine, and conventional methods no longer work here.
Read also: At what distance is the ISS from Earth: kilometers to the space station
There are also some completely ridiculous attempts. For example, set the distance for the beginning of space to 8 km, on the grounds that this is where meteors entering the earth's atmosphere begin to burn up.
Wikipedia does not give a definite answer to this question either. There is, for example, such a concept as the beginning of space for the human body. This is approximately 19 kilometers when biological fluids boil in the human body at an absolutely normal internal temperature. This is due to an extreme decrease in atmospheric pressure.
Docking in orbit
Meaning of the word
If we talk about what meaning this term can have, we should remember the philosophical definition, which implies a certain order of the world order. Turning to the understanding of ancient scientists and perceiving the term “space” as the space around the center of the world, there is no point in arguing at all about what distance it is, because this is the entire area around the Earth.
Starry sky
The scientific definition is that it is the unfilled space outside the atmosphere. This means that the solution to the problem at what distance he is located does not lie in the technical capabilities of the shuttle and not in the boiling of liquids in a person, but at those limits where open space and the complete absence of atmosphere begin.
The existence of conventional lines, even those defined by authoritative terrestrial organizations, does not mean that this particular distance from the surface of the Earth is the real distance to the space that fills the boundless and endless or limited areas between the atmospheres of celestial bodies:
- 100 km is the boundary of the atmospheric layer that is capable of reflecting radio waves. In some circles it is considered to be the boundary between near space and the earth's atmosphere;
- at the official demarcation line begins the Karman line, where the first cosmic speed is required to overcome distances;
- The boundary of the atmosphere recorded almost a hundred years ago was determined by researchers to be 320 km. The reason for this was the discovery of the Appleton layer - the end of the ionosphere;
- in 1950, the registered limit of the atmosphere was 1300 km. And judging by this parameter, the exact distance is precisely 1300 km, but Gemini 11, which reached an altitude of 1372 km, cast doubt on this figure;
- at the beginning of the last century, the estimated limit of the atmosphere was considered to be 80 thousand km, and this was almost correct, because it is at this distance that the intense effect of the Sun on the exosphere begins;
- At a distance of 90 thousand km or 90,000,000 meters there is a shock wave in which the solar wind and the earth's magnetosphere meet.
Distances from the Sun to the planets
All that remains is to decide which figure to take for granted.
And thus solve the issue of the maximum distance to space. Appearance magnetic field The Earth, it turns out, made this subject of discussion variable - from 100 to 120 thousand kilometers, because this area varies precisely within such limits.
Read also: Distance from Earth to Saturn in km: how many kilometers between them
If you do not tie it to certain circumstances and processes in the Universe, then the distance to the outermost space can safely be considered the end of the atmosphere at an altitude of 144,000 kilometers.
sunlight
Approximate definition
So far, humanity does not have a video (shot from a space satellite or ship) that would allow us to accurately measure how many kilometers the earth’s atmosphere actually is. After all, it is its end that becomes the beginning of outer space. The difficulty of the measurement process lies in the fact that there is no stability in the Universe.
Evolution of stars
It constantly moves, obeying the laws of rotation, gravity, ongoing reactions and transformations. Looking at photos taken with super-powerful telescopes, you can observe very interesting phenomena.
The state of the earth's atmosphere depends on the star around which it revolves. The exosphere, or geocorona, is also part of the earth’s shell, although it presumably consists only of hydrogen atoms.
It is believed that it continues until halfway from the Earth to the Moon, which is 190 thousand km. This distance increases due to the growth of the thermosphere. A similar phenomenon can be observed during periods of high solar activity. As the thickness of the thermosphere increases, the distance from the earth's surface of the exosphere also increases.
Formula for determining distances from Earth to planets
When determining this distance, it should be remembered that during solar activity the upper layer can become denser by almost 40 thousand km. And where the sun is this moment no, it stretches much more and varies from 50 diameters of the earth (600 thousand km) to 100 diameters (twice as much).
Distance from the Earth's surface to space: official
Ground surface
Here the argument is even simpler: there is no gravitational force - there is no atmosphere that is held by it. This means that this is interplanetary space. In the scientific definition of space, this is the very place where it is present between celestial bodies and planets.
Borders
There is no clear boundary, because the atmosphere thins out gradually as it moves away from the earth's surface, and there is still no consensus on what is considered a factor in the beginning of space. If the temperature were constant, then the pressure would change exponentially from 100 kPa at sea level to zero. The International Aeronautical Federation has established an altitude of 100 km(Karman line), because at this altitude, in order to create a lifting aerodynamic force, it is necessary for the aircraft to move at escape velocity, which is why the meaning of air flight is lost.
solar system
NASA describes a case where a person accidentally found himself in a space close to a vacuum (pressure below 1 Pa) due to an air leak from a spacesuit. The person remained conscious for approximately 14 seconds - approximately the time required for oxygen-depleted blood to move from the lungs to the brain. There was no complete vacuum inside the suit, and recompression of the test chamber began after approximately 15 seconds. Consciousness returned to the person when the pressure rose to an altitude equivalent to approximately 4.6 km. The man trapped in the vacuum later reported that he felt and heard air escaping from him, and his last conscious memory was that he felt the water boiling on his tongue.
Aviation Week and Space Technology magazine published a letter on February 13, 1995, which described an incident that occurred on August 16, 1960, during the rise of a stratospheric balloon with an open gondola to an altitude of 19.5 miles to make a record parachute jump (Project Excelsior "). Right hand The pilot was depressurized, but he decided to continue the ascent. The hand, as might be expected, was extremely painful and could not be used. However, when the pilot returned to denser layers of the atmosphere, the condition of the hand returned to normal.
Boundaries on the way to space
- Sea level - 101.3 kPa (1 atm.; 760 mm Hg;) atmospheric pressure.
- 4.7 km - MFA requires additional oxygen supply for pilots and passengers.
- 5.0 km - 50% of atmospheric pressure at sea level.
- 5.3 km - half of the total mass of the atmosphere lies below this height.
- 6 km is the border of permanent human habitation.
- 7 km is the limit of adaptability to a long stay.
- 8.2 km is the border of death.
- 8,848 km - the highest point on Earth, Mount Everest - the limit of accessibility on foot.
- 9 km is the limit of adaptability to short-term breathing of atmospheric air.
- 12 km - breathing air is equivalent to being in space (the same time of loss of consciousness ~ 10-20 s); limit of short-term breathing with pure oxygen; ceiling of subsonic passenger airliners.
- 15 km - breathing pure oxygen is equivalent to being in space.
- 16 km - when you are in a high-altitude suit in the cabin, you need additional pressure. 10% of the atmosphere remains overhead.
- 10-18 km - the boundary between the troposphere and stratosphere at different latitudes (tropopause).
- 19 km - the brightness of the dark purple sky at the zenith is 5% of the brightness of the clear blue sky at sea level (74.3-75 versus 1500 candles per m²), during the day the brightest stars and planets can be visible.
- 19.3 km - the beginning of space for the human body- boiling water at human body temperature. Internal bodily fluids at this altitude do not yet boil, since the body generates enough internal pressure to prevent this effect, but saliva and tears may begin to boil, forming foam, and swelling of the eyes.
- 20 km - upper limit of the biosphere: limit for the rise of spores and bacteria into the atmosphere by air currents.
- 20 km - the intensity of primary cosmic radiation begins to prevail over secondary radiation (born in the atmosphere).
- 20 km - the ceiling of hot air balloons (19,811 m).
- 25 km - during the day you can navigate by the bright stars.
- 25-26 km is the maximum steady flight altitude of existing jet aircraft (service ceiling).
- 15-30 km - ozone layer at different latitudes.
- 34.668 km - altitude record for a hot air balloon (stratostat) controlled by two stratonauts.
- 35 km - the beginning of space for water or triple point of water: at this altitude water boils at 0 °C, and above it cannot exist in liquid form.
- 37.65 km is the altitude record for existing turbojet aircraft (dynamic ceiling).
- 38.48 km (52,000 steps) - upper limit of the atmosphere in the 11th century: the first scientific determination of the height of the atmosphere by the duration of twilight (Arabic scientist Alhazen, 965-1039).
- 39 km - altitude record for a human-controlled stratospheric balloon (Red Bull Stratos).
- 45 km is the theoretical limit for a ramjet aircraft.
- 48 km - the atmosphere does not weaken the ultraviolet rays of the Sun.
- 50 km is the boundary between the stratosphere and mesosphere (stratopause).
- 51.82 km is an altitude record for a gas unmanned balloon.
- 55 km - the atmosphere does not affect cosmic radiation.
- 70 km - upper limit of the atmosphere in 1714 according to calculations by Edmund Holley (Halley) based on data from climbers, Boyle’s law and observations of meteors.
- 80 km is the boundary between the mesosphere and thermosphere (mesopause).
- 80.45 km (50 miles) - official height of the US space boundary.
- 100 km - official international boundary between the atmosphere and space- Karman line, defining the boundary between aeronautics and astronautics. Aerodynamic surfaces (wings) starting from this altitude do not make sense, since the flight speed to create lift becomes higher than the first escape velocity and the atmospheric aircraft becomes a space satellite.
- 100 km - recorded boundary of the atmosphere in 1902: discovery of the Kennelly-Heaviside ionized layer 90-120 km reflecting radio waves.
- 118 km - transition from atmospheric wind to streams of charged particles.
- 122 km (400,000 ft) - the first noticeable manifestations of the atmosphere during the return to Earth from orbit: the incoming air begins to turn the Space Shuttle nose in the direction of travel.
- 120-130 km - a satellite in a circular orbit with such an altitude can make no more than one revolution.
- 200 km is the lowest possible orbit with short-term stability (up to several days).
- 320 km - recorded boundary of the atmosphere in 1927: Discovery of Appleton's radio wave reflective layer.
- 350 km is the lowest possible orbit with long-term stability (up to several years).
- 690 km is the boundary between the thermosphere and exosphere.
- 1000-1100 km - the maximum height of the auroras, the last manifestation of the atmosphere visible from the Earth's surface (but usually clearly visible auroras occur at altitudes of 90-400 km).
- 2000 km - the atmosphere does not affect the satellites and they can exist in orbit for many millennia.
- 36,000 km was considered the theoretical limit of the existence of the atmosphere in the first half of the 20th century. If the entire atmosphere rotated uniformly along with the Earth, then from this height at the equator the centrifugal force of rotation would exceed gravity and air particles that went beyond this boundary would fly apart in different directions.
- 930,000 km is the radius of the Earth’s gravitational sphere and the maximum altitude for the existence of its satellites. Above 930,000 km, the Sun's gravity begins to prevail and it will pull bodies that rise above.
- 21 million km - at this distance the gravitational influence of the Earth practically disappears.
- Several tens of billions of km are the range limits of the solar wind.
- 15-20 trillion km - gravitational boundaries solar system, the maximum range of existence of planets.
Conditions for entering Earth orbit
In order to enter orbit, a body must reach a certain speed. Space speeds for Earth:
- First escape speed - 7.910 km/s
- Second escape velocity - 11.168 km/s
- Third escape velocity - 16.67 km/s
- The fourth escape speed is about 550 km/s
If any of the speeds is less than the specified one, then the body will not be able to enter orbit. The first person to understand that to achieve such speeds using any chemical fuel requires a multi-stage liquid-fueled rocket was Konstantin Eduardovich Tsiolkovsky.
see also
Links
- Gallery of photographs taken with the Hubble telescope (English)
Notes
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Most space flights are carried out not in circular orbits, but in elliptical orbits, the altitude of which varies depending on the location above the Earth. The altitude of the so-called “low reference” orbit, from which most spacecraft “push off”, is approximately 200 kilometers above sea level. To be precise, the perigee of such an orbit is 193 kilometers, and the apogee is 220 kilometers. However, in the reference orbit there is a large amount of debris left behind by half a century of space exploration, so modern spacecraft, turning on their engines, move to a higher orbit. For example, the International Space Station ( ISS) in 2017 rotated at an altitude of about 417 kilometers, that is, twice as high as the reference orbit.
The orbital altitude of most spacecraft depends on the mass of the ship, its launch site, and the power of its engines. For astronauts it varies from 150 to 500 kilometers. For example, Yuri Gagarin flew in orbit at perigee 175 km and apogee at 320 km. The second Soviet cosmonaut German Titov flew in an orbit with a perigee of 183 km and an apogee of 244 km. American shuttles flew in orbit altitude from 400 to 500 kilometers. All modern spacecraft delivering people and cargo to the ISS have approximately the same height.
Unlike manned spacecraft, which need to return astronauts to Earth, artificial satellites fly in much higher orbits. The orbital altitude of a satellite orbiting in geostationary orbit can be calculated based on data about the mass and diameter of the Earth. As a result of simple physical calculations, we can find out that geostationary orbit altitude, that is, one in which the satellite “hangs” over one point on the earth’s surface, is equal to 35,786 kilometers. This is a very large distance from the Earth, so the signal exchange time with such a satellite can reach 0.5 seconds, which makes it unsuitable, for example, for servicing online games.
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Andrey Kislyakov, for RIA Novosti.
It would seem that it is not so important where “Earth” ends and space begins. Meanwhile, the debate surrounding the value of the height beyond which boundless outer space already extends has not subsided for almost a century. The latest data, obtained through a thorough study and synthesis of a large amount of information over almost two years, allowed Canadian scientists in the first half of April to declare that space begins at an altitude of 118 km. From the point of view of the influence of cosmic energy on the Earth, this number is very important for climatologists and geophysicists.
On the other hand, it is unlikely that it will soon be possible to finally end this dispute by establishing a single border that suits everyone. The fact is that there are several parameters that are considered fundamental for the corresponding assessment.
A little history. The fact that hard cosmic radiation operates outside the earth's atmosphere has been known for a long time. However, it was not possible to clearly determine the boundaries of the atmosphere, measure the strength of electromagnetic flows and obtain their characteristics before the launches. artificial satellites Earth. Meanwhile, the main space task of both the USSR and the United States in the mid-50s was the preparation of a manned flight. This, in turn, required a clear knowledge of the conditions just beyond the earth's atmosphere.
Already on the second Soviet satellite, launched in November 1957, there were sensors for measuring solar ultraviolet, X-ray and other types of cosmic radiation. The discovery in 1958 of two radiation belts around the Earth was fundamentally important for the successful implementation of manned flights.
But let’s return to the 118 km established by Canadian scientists from the University of Calgary. Why, exactly, such a height? After all, the so-called “Karman line”, unofficially recognized as the boundary between the atmosphere and space, “passes” along the 100-kilometer mark. It is there that the air density is already so low that the aircraft must move at escape velocity (approximately 7.9 km/s) to prevent falling to Earth. But in this case, it no longer requires aerodynamic surfaces (wing, stabilizers). Based on this, the World Aeronautics Association adopted an altitude of 100 km as the watershed between aeronautics and astronautics.
But the degree of rarefaction of the atmosphere is far from the only parameter that determines the boundary of space. Moreover, the “earthly air” does not end at an altitude of 100 km. How, say, does the state of a substance change with increasing altitude? Maybe this is the main thing that determines the beginning of space? Americans, in turn, consider anyone who has been at an altitude of 80 km to be a true astronaut.
In Canada, they decided to identify the value of a parameter that appears to be important for our entire planet. They decided to find out at what altitude the influence of atmospheric winds ends and the influence of cosmic particle flows begins.
For this purpose, Canada developed a special device STII (Super - Thermal Ion Imager), which was launched into orbit from the spaceport in Alaska two years ago. With its help, it was established that the boundary between the atmosphere and space is located at an altitude of 118 kilometers above sea level.
At the same time, data collection lasted only five minutes, while the satellite carrying it rose to the altitude set for it of 200 km. This is the only way to collect information, since this mark is too high for stratospheric probes and too low for satellite research. For the first time, the study took into account all components, including air movement in the uppermost layers of the atmosphere.
Instruments like STII will emerge to continue exploration of the frontier regions of space and the atmosphere as payloads on European Space Agency satellites that will have an active lifespan of four years. This is important because Continuing research in border regions will make it possible to learn many new facts about the impact of cosmic radiation on the Earth's climate and the impact that ion energy has on our environment.
Changes in the intensity of solar radiation, directly related to the appearance of sunspots on our star, somehow affect the temperature of the atmosphere, and the successors of the STII apparatus can be used to detect this effect. Already today, 12 different analyzing devices have been developed in Calgary to study various parameters of near space.
But there is no need to say that the beginning of space was limited to 118 km. After all, for their part, those who consider a height of 21 million kilometers to be real space are also right! It is there that the influence of the Earth's gravitational field practically disappears. What awaits researchers at such cosmic depths? After all, we didn’t go further than the Moon (384,000 km).
Sea level - 101.3 kPa (1 atm; 760 mm Hg atmospheric pressure), medium density 2.7 1019 molecules per cm³.0.5 km - 80% of the world's human population lives up to this altitude.
2 km - 99% of the world's population lives up to this height.
2-3 km - the beginning of the manifestation of ailments (mountain sickness) in non-acclimatized people.
4.7 km - MFA requires additional oxygen supply for pilots and passengers.
5.0 km - 50% of atmospheric pressure at sea level.
5.3 km - half of the total mass of the atmosphere lies below this height (slightly below the peak of Mount Elbrus).
6 km is the border of permanent human habitation, the border of terrestrial life in the mountains.
6.6 km - the highest stone structure (Mount Llullaillaco, South America).
7 km is the limit of human adaptability to a long stay in the mountains.
8.2 km is the limit of death without an oxygen mask: even a healthy and trained person can lose consciousness and die at any moment.
8,848 km - the highest point on Earth, Mount Everest - the limit of accessibility on foot.
9 km is the limit of adaptability to short-term breathing of atmospheric air.
12 km - breathing air is equivalent to being in space (the same time of loss of consciousness ~ 10-20 s); limit of short-term breathing with pure oxygen without additional pressure; ceiling of subsonic passenger airliners.
15 km - breathing pure oxygen is equivalent to being in space.
16 km - when you are in a high-altitude suit in the cabin, you need additional pressure. 10% of the atmosphere remains overhead.
10-18 km - the boundary between the troposphere and stratosphere at different latitudes (tropopause). This is also the limit of the rise of ordinary clouds; thin and dry air extends further.
18.9-19.35 - Armstrong line - the beginning of space for the human body - boiling water at the temperature of the human body. Internal bodily fluids at this altitude do not yet boil, since the body generates enough internal pressure to prevent this effect, but saliva and tears may begin to boil, forming foam, and swelling of the eyes.
19 km - the brightness of the dark purple sky at the zenith is 5% of the brightness of the clear blue sky at sea level (74.3-75 candles versus 1500 candles per m²), during the day the brightest stars and planets can be visible.
20 km - the intensity of primary cosmic radiation begins to prevail over secondary radiation (born in the atmosphere).
20 km - the ceiling of hot air balloons (19,811 m).
20-22 km is the upper limit of the biosphere: the limit of the rise of living spores and bacteria into the atmosphere by air currents.
20-25 km - the brightness of the sky during the day is 20-40 times less than the brightness at sea level, as in the center of the full band solar eclipse and like at twilight, when the Sun is 9-10 degrees below the horizon and stars up to 2nd magnitude are visible.
25 km - during the day you can navigate by the bright stars.
25-26 km is the maximum steady flight altitude of existing jet aircraft (service ceiling).
15-30 km - ozone layer at different latitudes.
34.668 km - official altitude record for hot air balloon(stratostat), controlled by two stratonauts (Strato-Lab Project, 1961).
35 km is the beginning of space for water or the triple point of water: at this altitude water boils at 0 °C, and above it cannot exist in liquid form.
37.65 km is the altitude record for existing turbojet aircraft (Mig-25, dynamic ceiling).
38.48 km (52,000 steps) - the upper limit of the atmosphere in the 11th century: the first scientific determination of the height of the atmosphere based on the duration of twilight (Arab scientist Alhazen, 965-1039).
39 km is a record for the height of a stratospheric balloon controlled by one person (F. Baumgartner, 2012).
45 km is the theoretical limit for a ramjet aircraft.
48 km - the atmosphere does not weaken the ultraviolet rays of the Sun.
50 km is the boundary between the stratosphere and mesosphere (stratopause).
51,694 km - the last manned altitude record in the pre-space era (Joseph Walker on the X-15 rocket plane, March 30, 1961)
51.82 km is a record altitude for a gas unmanned balloon.
55 km - the atmosphere does not affect cosmic radiation.
40-80 km - maximum ionization of air (conversion of air into plasma) from friction against the body of the descent vehicle upon entry into the atmosphere at the first escape velocity.
70 km - the upper limit of the atmosphere in 1714 according to Edmund Halley's calculations based on data from climbers, Boyle's law and observations of meteors.
80 km - the boundary between the mesosphere and thermosphere (mesopause): the height of noctilucent clouds.
80.45 km (50 mi) is the official altitude of the US boundary of space.
100 km is the official international boundary between the atmosphere and space - the Karman line, defining the boundary between aeronautics and astronautics. Aerodynamic surfaces (wings) starting from this altitude do not make sense, since the flight speed to create lift becomes higher than the first cosmic speed and the atmospheric aircraft turns into a space satellite. The density of the environment at this height is 12 trillion molecules per 1 dm³
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