Russian romanticism in literature of the first half of the 19th century. Romanticism in Russian literature at the beginning of the 19th century Romanticism in Russian literature at the beginning of the 19th century
It originated at the end of the 18th century, but reached its peak in the 1830s. From the beginning of the 1850s, the period began to decline, but its threads stretch through the entire 19th century, providing the basis for such trends as symbolism, decadence and neo-romanticism.
The rise of romanticism
Europe, in particular England and France, is considered the birthplace of this trend, which is where the name of this artistic trend comes from - "romantisme". This is explained by the fact that romanticism of the 19th century arose as a consequence of the Great French Revolution.
The revolution destroyed all the previously existing hierarchy, mixed society and social strata. The man began to feel lonely and began to seek solace in gambling and other entertainment. Against this background, the idea arose that all life is a game in which there are both winners and losers. The protagonist of each romantic work is a person who plays with fate, with fate.
What is romanticism
Romanticism is everything that exists only in books: incomprehensible, incredible and fantastic phenomena, at the same time associated with the confirmation of the personality through its spiritual and creative life. Mostly, events unfold against the background of pronounced passions, all heroes have pronounced characters, they are often endowed with a rebellious spirit.
Writers of the era of romanticism emphasize that the main value in life is a person's personality. Each person is a separate world full of amazing beauty. It is from there that all inspiration and lofty feelings are drawn, and also a tendency towards idealization appears.
According to novelists, the ideal is an ephemeral concept, but nevertheless it has the right to exist. The ideal is beyond the bounds of everything ordinary, therefore the main character and his ideas are directly opposed to everyday relationships and material things.
Distinctive features
The peculiarities of romanticism are as they are in the main ideas and conflicts.
The main idea of almost every piece is the constant movement of the hero in physical space. This fact, as it were, reflects the confusion of the soul, his continuously flowing reflections and, at the same time, changes in the world around him.
Like many artistic movements, romanticism has its own conflicts. Here the whole concept is based on the complex relationship of the protagonist with the outside world. He is very egocentric and at the same time rebel against the base, vulgar, material objects of reality, which in one way or another manifests itself in the actions, thoughts and ideas of the character. The following literary examples of romanticism are most clearly expressed in this regard: Childe Harold - the main character from "Childe Harold's Pilgrimage" by Byron and Pechorin - from "A Hero of Our Time" by Lermontov.
If we generalize all of the above, it turns out that the basis of any such work is the gap between reality and the idealized world, which has very sharp edges.
Romanticism in European literature
European romanticism of the 19th century is remarkable in that most of its works have a fantastic basis. These are numerous fabulous legends, short stories and stories.
The main countries in which romanticism as a literary trend manifested itself most expressively are France, England and Germany.
This artistic phenomenon has several stages:
- 1801-1815 years. The beginning of the formation of romantic aesthetics.
- 1815-1830 years. The formation and flowering of the current, the definition of the main postulates of this direction.
- 1830-1848 years. Romanticism takes on more social forms.
Each of the above countries has made its own, special contribution to the development of this cultural phenomenon. In France, the romantic had a more political overtones, the writers were hostile to the new bourgeoisie. This society, according to French leaders, ruined the integrity of the individual, its beauty and freedom of spirit.
In English legends, romanticism has existed for a long time, but until the end of the 18th century it did not stand out as a separate literary movement. English works, unlike French ones, are filled with Gothic, religion, national folklore, culture of peasant and workers' societies (including spiritual ones). In addition, English prose and lyrics are filled with travels to distant lands and exploration of foreign lands.
In Germany, romanticism as a literary movement was formed under the influence of idealist philosophy. The foundations were individuality and oppressed by feudalism, as well as the perception of the universe as a single living system. Almost every German work is permeated with reflections on the existence of man and the life of his spirit.
Europe: examples of works
The following literary works are considered the most notable European works in the spirit of romanticism:
Treatise "Genius of Christianity", stories "Atala" and "Rene" by Chateaubriand;
The novels "Dolphin", "Corinna, or Italy" by Germaine de Stael;
The novel "Adolphe" by Benjamin Constant;
The novel "Confessions of the Son of the Century" by Musset;
The novel "Saint-Mar" by Vigny;
Manifesto "Preface" to the work "Cromwell", novel "Notre Dame Cathedral" by Hugo;
Drama "Henry III and His Court", a series of novels about the Musketeers, "The Count of Monte Cristo" and "Queen Margot" by Dumas;
The novels Indiana, The Wandering Apprentice, Horace, Consuelo by Georges Sand;
Manifesto "Racine and Shakespeare" by Stendhal;
Coleridge's poems The Old Sailor and Christabel;
- "Oriental Poems" and "Manfred" by Byron;
Collected Works of Balzac;
The novel "Ivanhoe" by Walter Scott;
The fairy tale "Hyacinth and the Rose", the novel "Heinrich von Ofterdingen" by Novalis;
Collections of short stories, fairy tales and novels by Hoffmann.
Romanticism in Russian literature
Russian romanticism of the 19th century arose under the direct influence of Western European literature. However, despite this, it had its own characteristic features, which were tracked even in previous periods.
This artistic phenomenon in Russia fully reflected all the hostility of the leaders and revolutionaries to the ruling bourgeoisie, in particular, to its way of life - unbridled, immoral and cruel. Russian romanticism of the 19th century was a direct result of rebellious sentiments and anticipation of turning points in the history of the country.
In the literature of that time, two directions stand out: psychological and civil. The first was based on the description and analysis of feelings and experiences, the second - on the promotion of the struggle against modern society. The general and main idea of all novelists was that a poet or writer should behave according to the ideals that he described in his works.
Russia: examples of works
The most striking examples of romanticism in the literature of Russia in the 19th century are:
Novels "Ondine", "Prisoner of Chillon", ballads "Forest Tsar", "Fisherman", "Lenora" by Zhukovsky;
Works "Eugene Onegin", "The Queen of Spades" by Pushkin;
- "The Night Before Christmas" by Gogol;
- "A Hero of Our Time" by Lermontov.
Romanticism in American Literature
In America, the direction received a slightly later development: its initial stage dates back to 1820-1830, the subsequent one - 1840-1860 years of the XIX century. Both stages were exceptionally influenced by civil unrest both in France (which served as the impetus for the creation of the United States), and directly in America itself (the war for independence from England and the war between North and South).
Artistic trends in American romanticism are represented by two types: abolitionist, who advocated liberation from slavery, and Eastern, who idealized plantation.
American literature of this period is based on a rethinking of knowledge and genres captured from Europe and mixed with a peculiar way of life and pace of life on a still new and little-known continent. American works are richly flavored with national intonations, a sense of independence and the struggle for freedom.
American romanticism. Examples of works
Cycle "Alhambra", stories "The Ghost Groom", "Rip Van Winkle" and "The Legend of Sleepy Hollow" by Washington Irving;
The Last of the Mohicans by Fenimore Cooper;
The poem "The Raven", the stories "Ligeia", "The Golden Beetle", "The Fall of the House of Usher" and others by E. Alan Poe;
The novels "The Scarlet Letter" and "The House of Seven Gables" by Gorton;
Melville's novels Typee and Moby Dick;
Uncle Tom's Cabin by Harriet Beecher Stowe;
The poetically transcribed legends of Evangeline, The Song of Hiawatha, The Courtship of Miles Standish by Longfellow;
Whitman's Leaves of Grass collection;
Composition "Woman in the Nineteenth Century" by Margaret Fuller.
Romanticism as a literary movement had a rather strong influence on musical, theatrical art and painting - suffice it to recall the numerous performances and paintings of those times. This happened mainly due to such qualities of the direction as high aesthetics and emotionality, heroism and pretentiousness, chivalry, idealization and humanism. Despite the fact that the century of romanticism was short enough, this did not in any way affect the popularity of books written in the 19th century, in the following decades - works of literary art of that period are loved and revered by the public to this day.
2.1 Romanticism in Russian literature
Russian romanticism, in contrast to the European one with its pronounced anti-bourgeois character, retained a strong connection with the ideas of the Enlightenment and adopted some of them - the condemnation of serfdom, the propaganda and protection of education, the defense of the people's interests. The military events of 1812 had a huge impact on the development of Russian romanticism. The Patriotic War caused not only the growth of civil and national consciousness of the advanced strata of Russian society, but also the recognition of the special role of the people in the life of the national state. The theme of the people has become very significant for Russian romantic writers. It seemed to them that, comprehending the spirit of the people, they joined the ideal beginnings of life. The creativity of all Russian romantics is marked by the desire for nationality, although their understanding of the "people's soul" was different.
So, for Zhukovsky, nationality is, first of all, a humane attitude towards the peasantry and, in general, towards poor people. He saw its essence in the poetry of folk rituals, lyric songs, folk signs and superstitions.
In the works of the romantic Decembrists, the idea of the people's soul was associated with other features. For them, a folk character is a heroic character, a nationally distinctive one. It is rooted in the national traditions of the people. They considered such figures as Prince Oleg, Ivan Susanin, Ermak, Nalivaiko, Minin and Pozharsky to be the most prominent exponents of the people's soul. So, Ryleev's poems "Voinarovsky", "Nalivaiko", his "Dumas", stories by A. Bestuzhev, southern poems of Pushkin, later - "Song about the merchant Kalashnikov" and poems of the Caucasian cycle by Lermontov are devoted to an understandable popular ideal. In the historical past of the Russian people, romantic poets of the 1920s were especially attracted by crisis moments - periods of struggle against the Tatar-Mongol yoke, free Novgorod and Pskov against autocratic Moscow, the struggle against the Polish-Swedish intervention, etc.
The interest in Russian history among romantic poets was generated by a sense of high patriotism. The Russian romanticism, which flourished during the Patriotic War of 1812, took it as one of its ideological foundations. In artistic terms, romanticism, like sentimentalism, paid great attention to the depiction of a person's inner world. But unlike the sentimentalist writers, who extolled "quiet sensitivity" as an expression of "a languid sorrowful heart," the romantics preferred the portrayal of extraordinary adventures and violent passions. At the same time, the unconditional merit of romanticism, especially its progressive direction, was the identification of an effective, volitional principle in a person, striving for high goals and ideals that lifted people above everyday life. Such was the character, for example, of the work of the English poet J. Byron, whose influence was experienced by many Russian writers of the early 19th century.
A deep interest in the inner world of a person caused the romantics to be indifferent to the external beauty of the heroes. In this, romanticism was also radically different from classicism with its obligatory harmony between the appearance and the inner content of the characters. Romantics, on the other hand, sought to discover the contrast between the external appearance and the spiritual world of the hero. As an example, we can recall Quasimodo ("Notre Dame Cathedral" by V. Hugo), a freak with a noble, sublime soul.
One of the important achievements of romanticism is the creation of a lyrical landscape. For romantics, it serves as a kind of decoration that emphasizes the emotional intensity of the action. In the descriptions of nature, it was noted its "spirituality", its relationship with the fate and fate of man. Alexander Bestuzhev was a brilliant master of the lyrical landscape, in whose early stories the landscape expresses the emotional subtext of the work. In the story "The Revel Tournament" he portrayed the picturesque view of Revel, which corresponded to the mood of the characters: "It was in the month of May; the bright sun was rolling towards noon in transparent ether, and only in the distance the sky canopy touched the water with a silvery cloudy fringe. The light spokes of the Revel bell towers burned along the bay, and the gray loopholes of Vyshgorod, leaning on the cliff, seemed to grow into the sky and, as if overturned, plunged into the depths of the mirror-like waters. "
The originality of the theme of romantic works contributed to the use of a specific vocabulary expression - an abundance of metaphors, poetic epithets and symbols. So, the sea, the wind appeared as a romantic symbol of freedom; happiness - the sun, love - fire or roses; in general, pink symbolized love feelings, black - sadness. The night personified evil, crimes, enmity. The symbol of eternal change is a wave of the sea, insensibility is a stone; images of a doll or a masquerade meant falsity, hypocrisy, duplicity.
The founder of Russian romanticism is considered to be V.A.Zhukovsky (1783-1852). Already in the first years of the 19th century, he gained fame as a poet who glorified light feelings - love, friendship, dreamy spiritual impulses. Lyrical images of his native nature took an important place in his work. Zhukovsky became the creator of the national lyrical landscape in Russian poetry. In one of his early poems, the evening elegy, the poet reproduced a modest picture of his native land as follows:
Everything is quiet: the groves are asleep; peace in the neighborhood,
Prostrated on the grass under a bent willow,
I listen to how it murmurs, merged with the river,
Stream shaded by bushes.
You can barely hear the reeds swaying over the stream,
The sound of a loop in the distance awakens the villages asleep.
In the grass of the corncrake I hear a wild cry ...
This love for the depiction of Russian life, national traditions and rituals, legends and tales will be expressed in a number of subsequent works of Zhukovsky.
In the later period of his work Zhukovsky was engaged in translations and created a number of poems and ballads of fabulous and fantastic content ("Undine", "The Tale of Tsar Berendey", "The Sleeping Princess"). Zhukovsky's ballads are full of deep philosophical meaning, they reflect both his personal experiences, and thoughts and features inherent in romanticism in general.
Zhukovsky, like other Russian romantics, was highly inherent in the pursuit of a moral ideal. This ideal for him was philanthropy and personal independence. He asserted them both with his creativity and with his life.
In the literary work of the late 1920s and 1930s, romanticism retained its former positions. However, developing in a different social environment, it acquired new, original features. The pensive elegies of Zhukovsky and the revolutionary pathos of Ryleev's poetry are replaced by the romanticism of Gogol and Lermontov. Their work bears the imprint of that peculiar ideological crisis after the defeat of the Decembrist uprising, which the public consciousness experienced in those years, when betrayal of former progressive convictions, tendencies of self-interest, philistine "moderation" and caution were especially evident.
Therefore, in the romanticism of the 30s, the motives of disillusionment with modern reality prevailed, the critical principle inherent in this direction in its social nature, the desire to escape to a certain ideal world. Along with this - an appeal to history, an attempt to comprehend modernity from the standpoint of historicism.
The romantic hero often acted as a person who has lost interest in earthly goods and denounces the powerful and rich of this world. The hero's opposition to society gave rise to the tragic attitude characteristic of the romanticism of this period. The death of moral and aesthetic ideals - beauty, love, high art - predetermined the personal tragedy of a person gifted with great feelings and thoughts, as Gogol put it, "full of rage."
The most vividly and emotionally mood of the era was reflected in poetry, and especially in the work of the greatest poet of the XIX century - M. Yu. Lermontov. Already in his early years, freedom-loving motives occupied an important place in his poetry. The poet deeply sympathizes with those who actively fight injustice, who revolt against slavery. In this regard, the poems "Novgorod" and "The Last Son of Liberty" are significant, in which Lermontov turned to the favorite plot of the Decembrists - Novgorod history, in which they saw examples of the republican freedom of their distant ancestors.
The appeal to national origins, to folklore, characteristic of romanticism, is also manifested in the subsequent works of Lermontov, for example, in "The Song about Tsar Ivan Vasilyevich, the young oprichnik and daring merchant Kalashnikov." The theme of the struggle for the independence of the Motherland is one of the favorite themes of Lermontov's work - it is especially vividly illuminated in the "Caucasian cycle". The poet perceived the Caucasus in the spirit of Pushkin's freedom-loving verses of the 1920s - its wild, majestic nature was opposed to "the captivity of stuffy cities", "the dwelling of the saint's freedom" - to "the country of slaves, the country of masters" of Nicholas Russia. Lermontov warmly sympathized with the freedom-loving peoples of the Caucasus. So, the hero of the story "Ishmael-Bey" gave up personal happiness in the name of the liberation of his native country.
The hero of the poem "Mtsyri" possesses the same feelings. His image is full of mystery. A boy picked up by a Russian general languishes as a prisoner in a monastery and passionately yearns for freedom and his homeland: “I knew only the power of thought,” he confesses before his death, “One, but a fiery passion: It lived like a worm in me, She gnawed at my soul and burned it. my dreams called From the stuffy cells and prayers Into that wonderful world of troubles and battles. Where rocks hide in clouds. Where people are free as eagles ... ". Longing for will merges in the mind of the young man with longing for his homeland, for the free and "rebellious life" to which he so desperately strove. Thus, the beloved heroes of Lermontov, as the romantic heroes of the Decembrists, are distinguished by an active volitional principle, an aura of chosen ones and fighters. At the same time, the heroes of Lermontov, in contrast to the romantic characters of the 1920s, anticipate the tragic outcome of their actions; the desire for civic activity does not exclude their personal, often lyrical plan. Possessing the traits of romantic heroes of the previous decade - heightened emotionality, "fervor of passions", lofty lyrical pathos, love as "the strongest passion" - they carry the signs of the times - skepticism, disappointment.
The historical theme became especially popular among romantic writers, who saw in history not only a way of knowing the national spirit, but also the effectiveness of using the experience of past years. The most popular authors who wrote in the genre of the historical novel were M. Zagoskin and I. Lazhechnikov.
People fighting the elements, sea battles; A.O. Orlovsky. The theoretical foundations of Romanticism were formed by F. and A. Schlegeli and F. Schelling. Painting of the "Wanderers" era. The influence of the social environment on the work and trends of creativity of Russian artists in the second half of the 19th century. The deliberate turn of the new Russian painting towards democratic realism, nationality, modernity became apparent in ...
His paintings are very sad ("Anchor, still anchor!", "The Widow"). Contemporaries rightly compared P.A. Fedotov in painting with N.V. Gogol in literature. Exposing the ulcers of feudal Russia is the main theme of the work of Pavel Andreevich Fedotov. Russian painting of the second half of the 19th century. Second half of the 19th century was marked by the flourishing of Russian fine arts. It became truly great ...
Literature and a glimpse of tragedy in portraiture of this artistic direction. The critical thinking of the Russian intelligentsia could not remain within the framework of romanticism, and the rapid development of Russian art in the 19th century brought it to realism. The mastery of the geniuses with which this period of culture is saturated demanded striving for reality, more faithful and careful reproduction of it, to ...
Time Russian musical culture has risen to unprecedented heights. Literature. It was the dawn of literature that made it possible to define the first half of the 19th century as the “golden age” of Russian culture. Writers reflecting Russian reality took different socio-political positions. There were various artistic styles (methods), the adherents of which held opposite beliefs ...
Lecture 1. Pan-European literary process of 1790-1830.
Historical events and the "literary revolution" of romanticism. Romanticism as a principle of the worldview and as a creative method. Theoretical postulates of early romanticism and philosophy of the turn of the XVIII-XIX centuries.
Literary map of the world in the first half of the 19th century. leaves an impression of amazing variegation and diversity. Romanticism - the first new artistic direction of the century in terms of time of emergence - was based on a general cultural shift that captured all spheres of public consciousness and changed the perception of the people of the era.
Romanticism was the response of the human spirit to the movement of history, which suddenly became palpable. One human life contains changes that were previously available only to historical study. Emotional experience and then comprehension of the tragic experience of the Great French Revolution played a decisive role in the genesis of the romantic world outlook. But even outside the subsequent historical experience: the Napoleonic wars, national liberation movements, the development of bourgeois relations and the impoverishment of the masses that accompanied this development, the victorious revolutionary War of Independence in Latin America, and finally a new social exacerbation in Europe, which led to the revolutions of 1830 and 1848 biennium - it is impossible to understand romanticism.
At its core, romanticism is an art that in its own way strives for objectivity, trying to understand and capture the nature of world development. Schelling had a tremendous influence on the first generation of romantics, not only German, but also English and - indirectly - French: his philosophy of the identity of spirit and nature, subject and object, provided a theoretical basis for the desire for objectivity. “Cognition of the higher” (that is, the universe in its movement) required not analysis, which split the whole into mechanically connected parts, but synthesis: hence Schelling and German romantics close to him apologize for the universality of art, ideally embracing artistic and philosophical knowledge.
Hence the idea of organic form, which is extremely important for romantic aesthetics, developed by A.V. Schlegel, and taken up by S.T. and content.
The connection of the new art with the educational tradition and the break with the previous art system. Romantic subjectivism and dualism. New attitude towards personality and specificity of the romantic hero.
A characteristic feature of the era is the coexistence of artistic trends. For several decades, enlightenment and classicist traditions, romanticism, and then realism, maintained a relationship in which struggle and overcoming were combined with mutual influence. Although romanticism in its essential features was a reaction to the Enlightenment and especially to enlightenment rationalism, although the theoretical speeches of the romantics are permeated with the pathos of rejecting the leading ideas of the Enlightenment and the overthrow of all the norms and precepts of classicism, in fact the romantics took more than they discarded from the legacy of the 18th century. ...
Such a purely romantic feature arises as a double world, precisely characterized by Hegel: "On the one hand, the spiritual kingdom, complete in itself ... On the other hand, we have before us the kingdom of the external as such, freed from a lasting unity with the spirit."
The Schellingian "whole person", who can be called a "seeker" or "enthusiast", is replaced by the "alienated" hero, splits into a lonely dreamer, an unrecognized artist, a disillusioned wanderer, a desperate rebel, a cold nihilist. The hero, who has fallen away and opposed to the world, is idealized, his dissatisfaction with life takes on the character of "world sorrow", his subjectivity grows and sometimes threatens to overshadow the whole of humanity.
This falling away, rebellion, discord between the subject and the subject that does not meet the high requirements of the subject, but the world imposing its own rules on him, is so vividly embodied by romantics that they usually seem to be a fundamental and almost the only theme of romanticism.
Striving for universalism in the work of the first romantics. W. Blake, Novalis and others. National variants of the romantic movement.
F. Schlegel designated romantic poetry as universal. The very concept of "universality" F. Schlegel, however, used in another, deeper sense: as the ability of a romantic poet to comprehend the world in its integrity and versatility, to see the same phenomenon from different angles. It also embodied the fundamental position of all romantic aesthetics, according to which the poet, the creator was endowed with the most unlimited powers and possibilities. In this sense, romantic universalism was specific: it expressed, first of all, a subjective, personal attitude to the surrounding world.
The work of William Blake (1757-1827) turned out to be an early, bright and at the same time insufficiently recognized phenomenon of English romanticism. In drawings and poems, which he did not print, but, like drawings, engraved, Blake created his own special world. The task of this special, rationalized religion is universal synthesis. Combining extremes, combining them through struggle - this is the principle of building Blake's world. In Blake's poems, there is a lot that is in tune with the romantics: universalism, dialectics, pantheistic motives, the desire for an all-encompassing, spiritual and practical comprehension of the world.
The most prominent writer of the Jena school was Friedrich von Hardenberg, who adopted the literary name Novalis (1772-1801). In the sphere of philosophy, Novalis is characterized by a movement from Fichte's subjective idealism to a mystically colored pantheism. The idealist philosopher, mining engineer and poet sometimes argued with each other in it, but more often they merged into a single whole, creating a unique image of the thinker and artist. For the hero Novalis, the true is the intuitive, characteristic of the poet, the nature of knowledge. Mythologism Novalis remained an unfinished application of the romantic poet to solve many difficult philosophical and ethical problems.
The relevance of the typology of national romanticisms as independent artistic systems can be fully revealed only within the framework of world literature, where comparisons of the interregional and intercontinental order are possible. And in the closer confines of Western Europe, the differences between German, English, French romanticism and Portuguese, Belgian, Dutch, Danish, and Swedish should be noted.
Questions for self-control
What historical events and how influenced the emergence of romanticism?
Whose philosophy influenced the first generation of romantics?
How was romanticism related to the Enlightenment?
What is the essence of the romantic double world?
What is the specificity of the new romantic hero?
How did F. Schlegel understand "universality"?
What is the peculiarity of W. Blake's work?
Who was the most prominent writer of the Jena school?
Lecture 2. Jena romanticism in Germany.
The early stage of the German romantic movement as a "theoretical period" in the history of national romanticism. Philosophical basis of Jena romanticism: I. Kant, I. G. Fichte, F. W. Schelling.
The basic principles of romantic theory were formulated by Friedrich Schlegel (1772-1829) in his Fragments (1797); in 1797, Wilhelm Heinrich Wackenroder's book "The Heart Outpourings of a Monk, an Art Lover" was published. In 1798, the Athenaeus magazine published Novalis's Fragments. In the same years, the activities of A. V. Schlegel (1767-1845) and L. Tieck began. This group of writers has received the name of the Jena school in the history of literature. The philosophy of Fichte and Schelling played an important role in the formation of romantic aesthetics.
F. Schlegel's theoretical works. Creativity of Jean-Paul and V.G. Wackenroder. The scheme of opposition of two types of cultures; idea of romantic irony.
F. Schlegel declared the novel the leading genre of the modern era. The novel, in his opinion, to the greatest extent met the requirement of universality, for it was capable of embracing the most diverse facets of reality. F. Schlegel saw an example of the novel as a genre in Goethe's novel "The Study Years of Wilhelm Meister", to which he devoted a detailed critical review, as well as a number of fragments.
Jean-Paul Richter (1763-1825) in the new century continued his literary activity, which began with his books of the 80s of the 18th century. Jean-Paul designated the genre of his novels as idylls, although at the same time they are also parodies of idylls. Drawing the fate of a little man, sympathizing with his adversity and admiring his ability to be content with little, Jean-Paul, “the advocate of the poor,” as he was called, immediately ironically removes this idyll of miserable existence. In the novels of Jean-Paul, signs of an educational parable often appear. There is little action in his novels; the events taking place with the heroes are drowned in the stream of reasoning of the author and the characters. The Preparatory School of Aesthetics (1804) by Jean-Paul is a work no less original in its structure and genre than his novels.
The essays and sketches of the early deceased W. G. Wackenroder, published by Tieck in his book Fantasies of Art for Friends of Art (1799), outlined many lines of development of German literature: romantic universalism, anti-rationalistic aspects of aesthetics and criticism, the national theme (the image of Dürer). Finally, Wackenroder's short story "The Noteworthy Musical Life of the Composer Joseph Berglinger" opened a gallery of images programmed for all European romanticism - images of artists opposing the social environment that was felt to be hostile to genuine art.
The initial striving of romanticism for a new objectivity, for harmony of the personality and the whole is illustrated, in particular, by the interpretation that Schelling gives to irony - this is “the only form in which that which comes or should come from the subject is separated from him and objectified in the most definite way. ". Romantic irony is forged precisely as a dialectical trap for ordinary common sense, as a means to overcome the subjective limitations of the world outlook.
"Heinrich von Ofterdingen" by Novalis is a novel-journey for a romantic dream. The symbolism of the novel; its philosophical content.
Novalis entered the history of German and world literature primarily as the author of the unfinished novel "Heinrich von Ofterdingen" (published 1802). The time of action is conditional, and this allows us to speak of a mythical novel, saturated, moreover, with polysemantic symbolism. There is a whole world behind each image. In particular, in the episode with the Eastern captive, the idea of a synthesis of the cultures of the East and the West is presented for the first time, which will become the most important for all German romanticism. Novalis's novel embodies the entire optimistic philosophy of early German romanticism, his belief in the triumph of the ideal.
Poetry and prose of F. Hölderlin. Hyperion. The originality of F. Hölderlin's poetic system and the peculiarities of romantic lyrics.
The creative path of Friedrich Hölderlin (1770-1843) covers a relatively short period of time - from 1792 to 1804. Hölderlin's ancient Greek myths are organically intertwined with the myths created by the French revolutionaries. Hymn to Humanity (1791), Hymn to Friendship (1791), hymns to freedom (1790-1792) resembled not only the pathos of speeches in the Convention, but also the republican holidays organized by the Jacobins in honor of the Supreme Being, in honor of Freedom and Reason. Hölderlin's tragic outlook is most fully expressed in the novel "Hyperion" (v. 1 - 1797, v. 2 - 1799). This, to a large extent, the final work has absorbed the entire historical experience of the poet, all the main problems that worried him for a whole decade. Hölderlin is very stingy in portraying external events. Sometimes "Hyperion" is compared to "The Suffering of Young Werther". But the similarity here is only superficial - a novel in letters; the difference is in the worldview, artistic method, type of hero. Hyperion opposes not only the world of social evil, but all reality. Hölderlin's ideal is a universal harmonious personality. But the realization of the unattainability of this ideal in a post-revolutionary society determines the deep tragedy of the poet's worldview. Hölderlin's figurative system is complex and, as a rule, does not admit of an unambiguous interpretation. Its leitmotif is the romantic confrontation between the ideal and reality, and the tragic sound of this leitmotif intensifies over the years.
Questions for self-control
Who developed the basic principles of romantic theory?
What is the Jena School?
What genre did F. Schlegel consider to be the leading one?
What are the genre and content features of Jean-Paul Richter's novels?
What features of German romantic literature are outlined in the essays and sketches of V.G. Wackenroder?
The gallery of which images is opened by V. G. Wackenroder's short story "The remarkable musical life of the composer Joseph Berglinger"?
What is the philosophical content of Novalis's novel "Heinrich von Ofterdingen"?
What are the features of "mythology" in F. Hölderlin's lyrics?
With what work is F. Hölderlin's novel "Hyperion" compared and is it justified?
What determines the tragic sound of the novel?
Lecture 3. Late German romanticism.
Heidelberg and Berlin circles. Strengthening the role of the "national idea" in German romanticism and its ideological contradictions. National orientation, interest in folklore, historical and philological research of romantics.
The war of liberation against Napoleon gave rise to a complex of ideas that significantly differed from the judgments and views of the romantics of the Jena school. Now the concepts of nation, nationality, historical consciousness are coming to the fore. A kind of center of the romantic movement in the first decade of the 19th century. became Heidelberg, where a circle of poets and prose writers was formed, representing a new generation of romantics and showing an increased interest in everything German, history and culture. During these years, monuments of medieval German literature were published and commented on.
A collection of folk songs by A. Arnim and K. Brentano, a collection of fairy tales by the brothers J. and V. Grimm.
The collection of songs "The Boy's Magic Horn" (1805-1808), published by A. von Arnim and C. Brentano, caused a great resonance in the country, it was approved by Goethe. The thematic composition of the collection was wide enough: love and everyday songs, soldiers', robber's, songs about nuns. Arnim and Brentano gave preference to songs in which the features of the patriarchal way of life, originally German, according to their idea, were captured. Nevertheless, these songs express the feelings and moods of countless generations, and Heine could rightfully say that "the heart of the German people beats in them."
An even wider response around the world was received by "Children's and Family Tales", published by the brothers Jacob (1785-1863) and Wilhelm (1786-1859) Grimm (composition and text in the final edition - 1822). There were fairy tales about animals, and fairy tales, and fairy tales, which in different situations confronted an intelligent, kind, courageous fairytale hero (often a simple peasant) with his opponents both in human form and in the guise of various monsters that embody the evil principle of the world ... The Grimms did not consider themselves only collectors and publishers: being experts in the history of language and national culture, they not only commented on the texts, but also gave them a stylistic form that made their collection an outstanding literary monument of the era of romanticism.
Questions for self-control
What concepts came to the fore in connection with the war against Napoleon?
Where did the circle of writers of the new generation of romantics form?
Who published the collection "The Boy's Magic Horn"?
What is the thematic composition of the collection?
What collection did J. and W. Grimm publish?
What fairy tales were included in this collection?
What else was the Brothers Grimm merit in publishing the collection?
Lecture 4. Genres of legend and fairy tale in romantic prose.
The emergence and development of a romantic novella, its specificity (Novalis, L. Tik, K. Brentano, A. Arnim, A. Chamisso).
Ludwig Tieck (1773-1853) wrote poetry, novels, rock dramas and daring ironic comedies, was one of the creators of the genre of short stories-fairy tales. German romanticism owes primarily to Tik the creation of the genre of the novella-fairy tale. And although to a certain extent Tik relies on folklore tradition, the structure of the short stories, the images of the heroes and the motivations of their actions radically distinguish the literary novella-fairy tale from the folk tale. Most often, the author draws tragic destinies.
Among the novellas by Achim von Arnim, the most famous is Isabella of Egypt (1812), a fantastic novella. The semi-historical, semi-fantastic background contains a romantic story about the tragic love of the gypsy woman Isabella and Charles V. Historical flavor - albeit in a different light - has the short story "Raphael and His Neighbor" (1824), a polemical transcription of the image of "divine Raphael", new for romantics. Arnim rejects the enthusiasm of Wackenroder and the entire Jena school for this great era of European culture.
Clemens Brentano (1778-1842), a poet, prose writer and playwright, embodied the main tendencies of the Heidelberg school, its ups and downs with the greatest acuity in his work.
The romantic protest against bourgeois money-grubbing was clearly expressed by Adalbert Chamisso (1781-1838) in the fairy tale novel “The Amazing Story of Peter Schlemil” (1814), which brought the author wide fame. This is a tale of the fatal power of gold. There are many interpretations of the main plot move: the hero's loss of his shadow. As a romantic, he raised the question that for the sake of gold, enrichment, a person should not sacrifice even the slightest part of his being, even such a seemingly insignificant property as the ability to cast a shadow.
The work of G. Kleist: the tragedy of the search for the highest justice.
A special place in the literary movement of the first decade of the 19th century. occupies the work of the playwright and short story writer Heinrich von Kleist (1777-1811). He entered the history of German literature as the most tragic of romantics. The events in Kleist's last tragedy "Prince Friedrich of Homburg" (1810) take place in 1675. The meaning of the tragic conflict boils down to the question: what is true loyalty - in conscious service to the cause of the sovereign or in unquestioning blind obedience to his orders. Kleist's contribution to the history of the German and European short story is significant. The story "Michael Kohlhaas" (1810) is a broad historical canvas, and many historical figures are involved in the course of events. There is a well-known connection between "Michael Kohlhaas" and "Prince Friedrich of Homburg" (they were written at about the same time) - both works investigate the question of human right and duty. Kolhaas does not think about the destruction of feudal rulers, moreover, he wants to get justice from them. In the finale of the story, this justice triumphs formally. The paradox of the finale emphasizes the insolubility of the conflict between a person and state institutions. This is just one aspect of Kleist's tragic worldview.
Questions for self-control
What genre did romanticism owe to L. Tiku?
What is the most famous novel by A. von Arnim devoted to?
What is the main meaning of the novel by A. Chamisso "The Amazing Story of Peter Schlemil"?
What is the meaning of the tragic conflict in the tragedy of G. Kleist "Prince Friedrich of Homburg"?
What problems are raised in the story of G. Kleist "Michael Kolhaas"?
What novels reveal the most important theme of E. T. A. Hoffmann?
Where does Hoffmann's short story "The Golden Pot" take place?
What is the role of irony in this novel?
What questions are asked in Hoffmann's fairy tale "Little Tsakhes, nicknamed Zinnober"?
What work is considered the pinnacle of Hoffmann's career?
Lecture 5. English literature.
The influence of the political structure and economic development of the country on the literary process. The "Lake School" of the Romantics (W. Wordsworth, S. T. Coleridge, R. Southey). The aesthetic program of the leukists and its embodiment in poetry. Romantic lyrics, its main themes, images and forms.
England can be considered, to a certain extent, the ancestral home of romanticism. The early bourgeois development there also gave rise to the first anti-bourgeois aspirations, which later became characteristic of all romantics. The decisive impetus that crystallized romanticism as a spiritual direction came to the British from outside. This was the impact of the French Revolution. In England, at the same time, the so-called "quiet", although in fact not at all quiet and very painful, revolution was taking place - an industrial one. The tragic side of bourgeois prosperity found expression in romantic aspirations directed against progressive movement.
The recognized pioneers of the English romantic movement were W. Wordsworth and S. T. Coleridge, the founders and leaders of the so-called "Lake School". to which, besides them, R. Southey was also ranked.
The preface by W. Wordsworth and ST Coleridge to the second edition (1800) of Lyric Ballads is a manifesto of naturalness, understood broadly: as life itself, reflected in poetry, as a direct way of expression devoid of artificiality. There was only one principle: everything that only a poetic pen touches should give the impression of naturalness.
The main creative merit of Wordsworth as a poet lies in the fact that he seemed to speak in verse - without visible tension and generally accepted poetic conventions. Lyrical sketches are the best in Wordsworth's legacy. Coleridge's leading poetic thought is about the constant presence in life of the inexplicable, mysterious, difficult to comprehend. Chased, truly mesmerizing lines hypnotize the listener, and with him the reader, creating pictures that are extraordinary and irresistible. Coleridge captures in his poems a state of half-sleep, daydreaming, a feeling of slipping away time, this was his creative contribution not only to poetry, but also to the development of all literature.
R. Southey, the third of the poets ranked in the "School of the Lake", demonstrates an ironic look both at what is happening and at history. The irony stems from an ambiguous assessment of events, from a difference in points of view. In the best works of Southey, general romantic ideas about the "extraordinary", "inexplicable", "mysterious" were also tested.
Poetry by P. Shelley and J. Keats.
Despite the short and unsettled life, P. B. Shelley left a literary legacy, striking in its volume and richness: lyrics, poems, poetic dramas. The pathos of his work is sublime idealism. Shelley's poem Queen Mab (1813) resembles Blake's mysteries in scope and scale. The entire history of mankind unfolds before the reader in symbolic pictures and visions. In the poetic drama "Prometheus the Unchained" (1819), history appears as a process of gradual suppression of initiative, dying out of will, suppression of courage. Shelley's lyrics are "a hymn to intellectual beauty," to use the title of his poem of the same name (1817).
If you listen to the opinions of compatriots, then for all the discord, opinions agree on the well-known strangeness of J. Keats's poems. They were struck by the flamboyance, at times excessive, some far-fetched and at the same time significant originality. Keats' lyrics are, like other romantics, states of mind and heart, captured in poetry. "Isabella", "The Eve of St. Agnes", "Hyperion" and "Endymion" - these poems, created on the basis of English mythology or medieval legends, represent the alternation of individual episodes or poetic pictures.
Varieties of romantic story and novel: confessional, gothic and historical. W. Scott is the creator of the genre of the historical novel. Romantic traditions in the historical novel, their preservation and transformation in later literature.
One of the most popular genres of pre-romantic literature in England was the "Gothic novel" or, as it was sometimes called, "the horror novel." Life appears here not reasonably comprehensible, but mysterious, full of fatal riddles; unknown, often supernatural forces interfere in the fate of people.
Scott's method took shape in the mainstream of historicism, which gradually took shape throughout the second half of the 18th century. In a sense, according to the method of recreating "time", whatever it may be - past, present or future - the novel of the 19th century remained "historical."
Walter Scott's legacy is great: a massive volume of poetry, 41 volumes of novels and novellas, 12 volumes of letters, 3 volumes of diaries. According to national themes, his historical novels fall into two groups - "Scottish" and "English". Concreteness is what first of all distinguishes the historical paintings of Walter Scott from the approximate and vague, fantastic "antiquity" of other romantics. To the fullest extent of the opportunities allotted to him, Walter Scott tried to comprehend the life of the people and through it the general patterns in the change of times and customs. In his novels, he depicted many different eras - from medieval England to modern Scotland, and the material and spiritual culture of each era is shown to him not as a sham background, but as a living world. Having preserved the elements of the adventure and "Gothic" novel, freely introducing folklore motives and documentary accurate information, Walter Scott subordinates everything to the central task: to create a convincing story of human destinies within a certain era. He is not only the founder of the "historical" novel, he stands at the origins of subsequent prose insofar as any narrative speaks of the past.
Questions for self-control
How has the social situation influenced the character of English romanticism?
Who were the founders of the English romantic movement?
What is the essence of the Preface to the second edition of Lyric Ballads?
How is the story presented in P. Shelley's drama "Prometheus Unchained"?
What are the features of J. Keats' lyrics?
What groups are the historical novels of W. Scott divided into?
What makes his historical paintings different?
What is the central task of W. Scott in his novels?
Lecture 6. Features of American romanticism, its main themes and genres.
Historical and national specificity of American literature and European traditions. The connection of American romanticism with the Enlightenment.
The romantic era in the history of American literature spans almost half a century: it began in the second decade of the 19th century, and the end was lit up by the flames of the Civil War of the 60s. The foundation of the romantic ideology was the country's rapid socioeconomic development at the beginning of the 19th century, which raised it to the level of the most developed European powers and provided a springboard for subsequent capitalist progress. No other country in the world knew such a pace in the 19th century. The era of romanticism in the history of American literature is more or less clearly divided into three stages. Romantic ideology and romantic literature in the United States arose much later than in the advanced countries of Europe. American thinkers and poets made extensive use of the conquests of European - especially English - romanticism. It is not only about imitations and borrowings, of which there were plenty, but also about the creative use of the experience of European romantic philosophy, aesthetics and literature.
The general interest in national history and national literature gave rise to extremely favorable conditions for the emergence of historical genres. The intrusion of literature into history or history into literature accompanies the romantic movement in the United States from its origins to almost the very end, although over time it weakens somewhat.
He left his mark on romantic creativity and regionalism, which is highly influential in American spiritual life and, accordingly, in literature.
American romanticism, more than European romanticism, reveals a deep and close connection with the ideology and aesthetics of the Enlightenment. This applies to political theories, sociological ideas, methodology of thinking, genre aesthetics. In other words, American romanticism acts not only as the destroyer of educational ideology, but also as its direct heir.
F. Cooper's novels - a cycle about Leather Stocking. National pathos and educational ideas.
The author of 33 novels, James Fenimore Cooper (1789-1851) became the first American writer to be unconditionally and widely recognized by the cultural milieu of the Old World, including Russia. Cooper's Spy established the tradition of the American historical novel. Cooper found a new method of combining history and fiction, without sacrificing either imagination or historical accuracy. And yet the reputation of Cooper, a classic of national and world literature, firmly rests on the pentalogy of Natty Bumpo - Leather Stocking (they call him, however, differently - St. John's Wort, Hawkeye, Pathfinder, Long Carabiner). It was painful for Cooper to see how the root America, which his beloved hero embodies, is leaving before our eyes, being replaced by a completely different America, where speculators and crooks rule the ball. Three novels about Leather Stocking, written by Cooper in the 1920s, form a complete trilogy. In the early 40s, the writer added two more novels to it - "The Pathfinder" and "St. John's Wort". These two novels organically entered the series as new chapters of the hero's life, "missed" by the author in the trilogy. As Belinsky wrote, "Cooper cannot be surpassed when he introduces you to the beauties of American nature."
The image of the Leather Stocking is a complex fusion of the philosophical ideals of the Enlightenment, folklore and literary traditions, the characteristic features of national American history and modern reality.
G. Longfellow as a representative of "university" poetry: "Song of Hiawatha".
The work of Henry Wadsworth Longfellow (1807-1882) falls mainly in the second period of American Romanticism. Longfellow's life and literary destiny was extremely successful. From the very beginning to the very end of Longfellow's literary career, he has consistently been accompanied by success. The poet's language is transparent, simple and natural, devoid of tortured sophistication and bombast, and this is the result of the poet's immense careful work. Longfellow's poems are very melodic, easy to remember. More than any of the poets of his contemporaries, Longfellow gravitates towards folklore motives, striving to create a mythological and legendary national epic. Longfellow's significance for the development of American poetry is beyond doubt: drawing from the treasury of world culture, he defines the milestones and lays the foundations for national literature. Indisputable evidence of this is Longfellow's masterpiece The Song of Hiawatha (1855).
The source of the poem was the ancient legends of the Indian tribes of the northeast of America, as well as ethnographic works devoted to the culture and life of the Indians. The image of Hiawatha himself combines historical and legendary features and is also built according to the laws of the ancient heroic epic, which includes a story about the origin of the hero, his exploits, battles with enemies, etc. fairy tales. Longfellow managed to artistically convincingly show the integrity of the picture of the universe, the ethical ideas of the Indians, the metaphorism of their thinking and speech.
Questions for self-control
What are the main features of American romanticism in comparison with European?
What is the merit of F. Cooper in American romantic literature?
What can be said about the protagonist of F. Cooper's pentology?
What is the originality of the work of G. Longfellow and his poem "Song of Hiawatha"?
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XIX century. Romanticism
Romanticism is an artistic movement that emerged at the beginning of the 19th in Europe and continued until the 40s of the 19th century. Romanticism is observed in literature, fine arts, architecture, behavior, clothing, human psychology. The supporters of romanticism opposed vulgarity and evil. They sought to free the individual from superstition and power, because for them each person is unique and unique.
NSRICHES OF THE OCCURRENCE OF ROMANCE
The immediate cause of the emergence of romanticism was the Great French Bourgeois Revolution.
Before the revolution, the world was ordered, there was a clear hierarchy in it, each person took his place. The revolution overturned the "pyramid" of society, a new one had not yet been created, so the individual felt a sense of loneliness. Life is a flow, life is a game in which some are lucky and some are not. In this era, gambling arises and gains immense popularity, gambling houses appear all over the world and in Russia in particular, manuals on playing cards are published.
The new social order is far from the kind of society that the philosophers of the eighteenth century foreshadowed. The time has come for disappointment.
In the philosophy and art of the beginning of the century, tragic notes of doubt about the possibility of transforming the world on the principles of Reason sounded. Attempts to get away from reality and at the same time to comprehend it caused the emergence of a new worldview system - ROMANCE.
European romanticism arose after the French bourgeois revolution and relied on the philosophy of Hegel, Fichta and Schereng, which were based on idealistic views and their discord with social reality. Romantics embraced the idea of individual freedom put forward by the revolution, but at the same time, in Western countries, they realized the defenselessness of a person in a society where monetary interests prevailed. Therefore, the attitude of many romantics is characterized by confusion and confusion in front of the surrounding world, the tragedy of the fate of the individual. They denied reality, and therefore the idea of a double world was present in all works.
MAIN FEATURES OF ROMANCE
Romantics occupied different social and political positions in society. They all rebelled against the results of the bourgeois revolution, but they rebelled in different ways, since each had its own ideal. But for all the many-sidedness and diversity, romanticism has stable features.
Disappointment in modernity gave romantics a special interest in the past: in pre-bourgeois social formations, in patriarchal antiquity. Many romantics were characterized by the idea that the picturesque exoticism of the countries of the south and east - Italy, Spain, Greece, Turkey - is a poetic contrast to the boring bourgeois everyday life. In these countries, then still little affected by civilization, the romantics were looking for bright, strong characters, an original, colorful way of life.
All of them came from the denial of the Enlightenment and the rationalistic canons of classicism, which fettered the artist's creative initiative. And if classicism divides everything in a straight line, into bad and good, into black and white, then romanticism divides nothing in a straight line. Classicism is a system, but romanticism is not. Romanticism propelled the advancement of modern times from classicism to sentimentalism, which shows the inner life of a person in harmony with the vast world. And romanticism opposes harmony to the inner world. It is with romanticism that real psychologism begins to appear. The main task of romanticism was to depict the inner world, mental life, and this could be done on the basis of stories, mysticism, etc.
In their imaginations, the romantics transformed the unsightly reality or went into the world of their experiences. The gap between dream and reality, the opposition of the beautiful fiction to objective reality lay at the heart of the entire romantic movement. For the first time, romanticism poses the problem of the language of art. An artist is an interpreter of the language of nature, a mediator between the world of spirit and people. However, romanticism was not a homogeneous trend: its ideological development went in different directions. Among the romantics were reactionary writers, adherents of the old regime, who glorified feudal monarchy and Christianity. On the other hand, romantics with a progressive outlook expressed a democratic protest against feudal and all kinds of oppression, embodied the people's revolutionary impulse for a better future.
Romanticism left a whole era in the world artistic culture, its representatives were: V. Scott, J. Byron, Shelley, V. Hugo, A. Mitskevich, and others; in the fine arts of E. Delacroix, T. Gericault, F. Runge, J. Constable, W. Turner, O. Kiprensky and others; in music F. Schubert, R. Wagner, G. Berlioz, N. Paganini, F. Liszt, F. Chopin and others. They discovered and developed new genres, paid close attention to the fate of the human person, revealed the dialectic of good and evil, masterfully revealed human passions, etc.
Romanticism in literature
Romantics often idealized patriarchal society, in which they saw the kingdom of kindness, sincerity, and decency. Poetising the past, they went into old legends, folk tales. Romanticism has got its own face in each culture: among the Germans - in mysticism; for the British - in a person who will oppose himself to reasonable behavior; the French have unusual stories.
In literature, images of players appear - people who play with fate. One can recall such works of European writers as "The Gambler" by Hoffmann, "Red and Black" by Stendhal (and red and black are the colors of roulette!), And in Russian literature these are "The Queen of Spades" by Pushkin, "Players" by Gogol, "Masquerade" Lermontov.
Romantic writers asserted the values of the spiritual and creative life of the individual, depicted strong passions, a spiritualized and healing nature, which was also unrealistic. The landscape in their works is either very bright, or vice versa, thickening the colors, it is devoid of halftones. All this was done in order to more accurately convey the feelings of the heroes. Here are the names of the world's best romantic writers: Novalis, Jean Paul, Hoffmann, W. Wordsworth, W. Scott, J. Byron, V. Hugo, A. Lamartine, A. Mishkevich, E. Poe, G. Melville and our Russian poets - M. Yu. Lermontov, F. I. Tyutchev.
A ROMANTIC HERO is a player, he plays with life and fate, because only in a game can a person feel the power of fate.
The romantic hero is an individualist. A superman who has lived through two stages: 1) before colliding with reality; he lives in a "pink" state, he is possessed by the desire for achievement, change in the world. 2) after a collision with reality; he continues to consider this world both vulgar and boring, but he becomes a skeptic, a pessimist. Having clearly understood that nothing can be changed, the desire to heroism is reborn into a striving for dangers.
Every culture has had its own romantic hero, but Byron's Childe Harold gave a typical representation of the romantic hero. He put on the mask of his hero (this suggests that there is no distance between the hero and the author) and managed to comply with the romantic canon. The heroes of romanticism are restless, passionate, indomitable. These are exceptional characters in exceptional circumstances. A romantic hero, whoever he is - a rebel, a loner, a dreamer or a noble romantic - is always an exceptional person, with indomitable passions, he is necessarily internally strong. This personality has a pretentious, inviting speech.
Signs of a romantic piece.
First, in every romantic work there is no distance between the hero and the author. Secondly, the author of the hero does not judge, but even if something bad is said about him, the plot is so built that the hero is not guilty as it were. The plot in a romantic work is usually romantic. Romantics also build a special relationship with nature, they like storms, thunderstorms, cataclysms.
THE MAIN CONFLICT OF ROMANCE
The main one is the conflict between man and the world. The psychology of a rebellious personality emerges, which Lord Byron most deeply reflected in The Journey of Childe Harold. The popularity of this work was so great that a whole phenomenon arose - "Byronism", and whole generations of young people tried to imitate him.
Romantic heroes are united by a sense of their own exclusivity. “I” is perceived as the highest value, hence the egocentrism of the romantic hero. But by focusing on himself, a person comes into conflict with reality.
REALITY is a strange, fantastic, extraordinary world, like in Hoffmann's fairy tale "The Nutcracker", or ugly, like in his fairy tale "Little Tsakhes". In these tales, strange events take place, objects come to life and enter into lengthy conversations, the main theme of which is the deep gap between ideals and reality. And this gap becomes the main THEME of the lyrics of romanticism.
ROMANCE IN RUSSIA
In the 19th century, Russia was somewhat culturally isolated. Romanticism arose seven years later than in Europe. We can talk about his some imitation. In Russian culture, there was no opposition between man and God. Zhukovsky appears, who remakes German ballads in the Russian way: Svetlana and Lyudmila. Byron's version of romanticism lived and felt in his work first in Russian culture, Pushkin, then Lermontov.
Romanticism in Russia arose at the turning point of the Patriotic War of 1812. The essence of romantic art was the desire to oppose real reality with a generalized ideal image. Russian romanticism is inseparable from the general European, but its feature was a pronounced interest in national identity, national history, the assertion of a strong, free personality. It is customary to divide Russian romanticism into several periods: initial (1801-1815), mature (1815-1825) and the period of post-Kabrist development.
In Russian literature, the emergence of romanticism is associated with the name of V.A.Zhukovsky (1783-1852). His ballads, full of humanity and high human dignity, gave Russian poetry "soul and heart", constituted "a whole period of the moral development of our society." The development of lyrics from elegiac dreamy to deeply civic, imbued with a sense of the struggle "for the oppressed freedom of man", was a characteristic feature of romantic poetry. In the mainstream of the romantic movement, the foundations of the Russian historical novel were laid (A.A. Bestuzhev-Marlinsky, M.N. Zagoskin), an understanding of the national identity and nationality of culture was formed. Romantic poets have done a lot for literary translation. In essence, they first introduced the Russian reader to the works of contemporary Western European and antique writers. Zhukovsky was a talented translator of the works of Homer, Byron, Schiller.
Nationality during this period was identified with national identity, i.e. with peculiarities of lifestyles, way of life, costume, etc. In the last decades before the reform period, the development of artistic culture was characterized by a movement from romanticism to realism. In literature, this movement is associated with the names of Pushkin, Lermontov, Gogol.
The work of M.Yu. was important on the path of romanticism to realism. Lermontov (1814-1841), which reflected a difficult time - lost hopes and that followed the events of December 14, 1825. disappointment. The poet's rejection of the surrounding reality acquired a pronounced social character. His novel Heroes of Our Time (1841), while retaining romantic features, was one of the first works of critical realism literature.
The huge role of N.V. Gogol (1809-1852) in Russian literature. Dead Souls (the first volume was published in 1842) is one of the brightest realistic depictions of Russian life at that time.
Remaining deeply humanistic, literature increasingly takes on the character of teaching and compassion. One of the discoveries of the writers of the 'natural school' (early works of Goncharov, Nekrasov, Turgenev, Dostoevsky, etc.) was the 'little man' with his difficult life. The fate of the serf peasant became the subject of close attention of Russian literature (the stories of D. V. Grigorovich, essays from the peasant life of V. I. Dal, the cycle of stories "Notes of a Hunter" by I. S. Turgenev). 60-70-ies - the time of greatest achievement Turgenev (1818-1883) and Dostoevsky (1821-1881) made a huge contribution to Russian and world culture.
Dostoevsky's creativity, ideologically complex, sometimes tragic, is always deeply moral. The pain for the humiliated and insulted, faith in man was the main theme of the writer, deeply worried about Dostoevsky's revolutionary underground in Russia, the moral character of some of his leaders. He opposed strife and blood as a means of renewing the world.
ON. Nekrasov (1821-1877 \ 1878) young people of Raznochinsk considered their ideological leader. The theme of the people, their searches and hopes occupied a central place in Nekrasov's poetry. It expresses the dream not only of the happiness of the people, but also the belief in its strength, capable of throwing off the shackles of slavery (Nekrasov's poem `Who Lives Well in Russia ').
The pinnacle of Russian literature of the 19th century was the work of L.N. Tolstoy (1828-1910). He posed in his novels, novellas, dramas, and journalism “great questions.” The writer was always worried about the fate of the people and the Motherland (the historical epic War and Peace). One of the poignant social literary works of our time is Tolstoy's novel Anna Karenina, in which he, depicting the life of Russian society in the 70s, passes a merciless judgment on the morality, morals, and foundations of this society.
At the end of the 70s, A.P. Chekhov (1860-1904), who began his literary career in humorous and satirical magazines. In the work of Chekhov - his deep democratism, craving for working people, irreconcilable to the bourgeois and those in power. A huge impression on all progressive Russian society was made by his story `Ward No. 6 ', in which the author showed the whole terrible truth of Russian life.
The ideological atmosphere of the 80s was reflected in the fate of Russian art and literature. The attention of writers and artists began to attract more and more universal, philosophical, generalized, moral and psychological problems. The 80s did not leave anything significant in the history of the Russian classic novel.
From the mid-90s in the social and political life of Russia, a social upsurge began again, a feature of which was a broad liberal movement, the participation of workers in revolutionary democratic actions.
New phenomena in art at the end of the 19th century - the beginning of the 20th century were a kind of reaction to realism, which prevailed in the artistic culture of the 19th century. Among such phenomena was DECADENCE, (from the French - decline), MODERNISM, (from the French - the newest, modern).
Russian literature continued to play an extremely important role in the cultural life of the country. During these years, L.N. Tolstoy. In 1899. was published his last novel `Resurrection ', in which the protest against social evil and social injustice sounded sharp and angry.Tolstoy did not accept and did not support modernism in art.
At the time in question, A.P. Chekhov; novels and short stories ("My Life", "Men", "House with a Mezzanine", "Lady with a Dog", etc.). In the 90s, A.M. Gorky's career began (1868-1936). At the end of the 90s, Essays and Stories brought the writer all-Russian fame. The heroic romance of the young Gorky was a hymn to the "madness of the brave", reflecting the democratic revolutionary sentiments that had spread in the 90s. In his works written at this time (Old Woman Izergil, Chelkash, Girl and Death, a song about a petrel, a Petrel), he sang a proud, free man, love as a source of life, fearlessness of those who called to fight and were ready to give their lives for her ...
During these years, young writers entered Russian literature. Bunin (1870-1953) and Kuprin (1870-1938) are the largest writers of Russian realistic literature at the end of the 19th century. - and XX century.
Literary and cultural life of Russia in the second half of the XIX-XX centuries. `can be called the spring of life, the epoch of the flourishing of spiritual forces and social ideals, the time of ardent striving for light and for new yet unknown social activities.
EUROPEAN ROMANCE
Romanticism in England took shape earlier than in other countries of Western Europe. The very word "romantic" as a synonym for "picturesque", "original" appeared in 1654. It was first used by the artist John Evelyn when describing the surroundings of Bath.
It is customary to associate the beginning of English romanticism with the appearance of the collection Lyric Ballads by Wordsworth and Coleridge (1798), with the publication of a preface containing the main tasks of the new art. The English romantics did not have a consistently serious attitude towards romanticism, as, say, the German romantics. A distinctive feature of the spiritual activity of the British, reflected in artistic literary creativity, was ridicule, a parody of what was just becoming a literary norm. An example of this is Stern's novel Tristram Shandy, which both asserts and destroys the structure of the novel. Byron's Don Giovanni in the opening songs is also a parody of a traveling romantic hero closely reminiscent of Childe Harold.
The main attention of romantics was paid to a special property of romanticism - imagination. Coleridge's theoretical understanding of the imagination is associated with the most important page in the history of English culture - the penetration of German philosophy and aesthetics into English spiritual life.
The first stage of English romanticism, coinciding with the work of the poets of the Lake School, took place against the backdrop of Gothic and Jacobin novels. The novel as a genre did not yet feel its usefulness, therefore it represented a vast field for experiment. To the fore the English lyric poetry was presented by S. Rogers and W. Blake, T. Chatterton, D. Keats and T. Moore, poets-leukists. Poetry was more radical in terms of form. Having revived the genres of national lyrics (ballad, epitaph, elegy, ode) and significantly reworking them in the spirit of the times with an emphasis on the internally relaxed world of the individual, she confidently went from imitation to originality. The melancholy and sensibility of English poetry coexisted with the Hellenistic pagan admiration for life and its joys. Hellenistic motives in Keats and Moore emphasized the optimistic nature of the changes taking place in poetry - liberating it from the conventions of classicism, softening didactics, enriching narrative lines, filling them with subjectivity and lyricism. Oriental motifs in the lyrics of Shelley, Byron, Moore appear already in the first period of English romanticism.
The second stage in the development of English romanticism is associated with the work of Byron, Shelley, Scott, who discovered new genres and types of literature. The symbols of this period were the lyric-epic poem and the historical novel. Coleridge's Literary Biography, Byron's English Bards and Scottish Observers, excellent prefaces to Shelley's poems, Shelley's own treatise The Defense of Poetry, literary criticism by W. Scott (one hundred articles in the Edinburgh Review), his research on modern literature. The novel occupies a worthy place along with poetry. The biographical and moralistic novels of M. Edgeworth, F. Bernie, D. Austen undergo significant structural reorganization, national versions of novels are created - the Scottish cycle of W. Scott, "Irish novels" by M. Edgeworth. A new type of novel is designated - a pamphlet novel, a novel of ideas, a satirical burlesque, ridiculing the extremes of romantic art: the exclusivity of the hero, his satiety with life, melancholy, arrogance, addiction to the depiction of Gothic ruins and secluded mysterious castles (Peacock, Osten).
Dramatization of the form of the novel requires the removal of the figure of the author from the text; the characters gain more independence, the novel becomes more relaxed, less strict in form. The novel became a popular genre, and Scott began publishing a series of national novels. By the 30s, romanticism has become a leading trend in the novel, although the romantic hero is not always positive (Bulwer-Lytton, Disraeli, Peacock).
THE DIFFERENCE OF RUSSIAN AND EUROPEAN ROMANCE
Fairy tales, legends, fantastic stories have become the main literary form of European romanticism.
In the romantic works of Russian writers, the fairy-tale world arises from the description of everyday life, everyday situations. This everyday situation is refracted and rethought as fantastic. This feature of the works of Russian romantic writers can be traced most clearly on the example of "The Night Before Christmas" by N.V. Gogol.
But the main work of Russian romanticism is rightfully considered “The Queen of Spades” by A.S. Pushkin. The plot of this work differs significantly from the plot of the famous opera by Tchaikovsky of the same name.
The difference between romanticism and classicism. We see that classicism divides everything in a straight line, into good and bad, into black and white. Romanticism divides nothing in a straight line. Classicism is a system, but romanticism is not.
Romanticism in painting
The romantic artist never tried to accurately reproduce reality. It is more important for him to express his attitude towards her, moreover, to create his own, fictional image of the world, cha one hundred on the principle of contrast with the surrounding life, so that through this fiction, through contrast, convey to the reader both his ideal and his rejection of the world he denies.
In the visual arts, romanticism manifested itself most clearly in painting and graphics, less expressively in sculpture and architecture. The outstanding representatives of romanticism in the visual arts were Russian romantic painters. In their canvases, they expressed the spirit of love of freedom, active action, passionately and passionately appealed to the manifestation of humanism. The everyday canvases of Russian painters are distinguished by their relevance and psychologism, an unprecedented expression. Spiritual, melancholic landscapes are also an attempt by romantics to penetrate the human world, to show how a person lives and dreams in the sublunary world. Russian romantic painting was different from foreign painting. This was determined by both the historical setting and tradition.
Features of Russian romantic painting:
Educational ideology weakened but did not fail, as in Europe. Therefore, romanticism was not pronounced.
Romanticism developed in parallel with classicism, often intertwining with it.
Academic painting in Russia has not yet exhausted itself.
Romanticism in Russia was not a stable phenomenon; romantics were drawn to academism. By the middle of the XIX century. the romantic tradition has almost died out.
Works related to romanticism began to appear in Russia as early as the 1790s (works by Feodosiy Yanenko "Travelers Caught by the Storm" (1796), "Self-Portrait in a Helmet" (1792)). As in other countries, artists belonging to Russian romanticism introduced a completely new emotional mood into the classical genres of portrait, landscape and genre scenes.
In Russia, romanticism began to manifest itself first in portraiture. In the first third of the 19th century, it mostly lost its connection with the aristocracy. Portraits of poets, artists, art patrons, depictions of ordinary peasants began to occupy a significant place. This tendency was especially clearly manifested in the work of O.A. Kiprensky (1782 - 1836) and V.A. Tropinin (1776 - 1857).
Vasily Andreevich Tropinin strove for a lively, unconstrained characterization of a person, expressed through his portrait. Portrait of a Son (1818), “Portrait of A.S. Pushkin "(1827)," Self-portrait "(1846) are striking not by the portrait resemblance to the originals, but by an unusually subtle penetration into the inner world of a person.
Tropinin's romanticism has distinct sentimental origins. It was Tropinin who was the founder of the genre, somewhat idealized portrait of a man of the people (The Lacemaker (1823)).
A distinctive feature of Kiprensky's portraits is that they show the spiritual charm and inner nobility of a person. The portrait of a hero, brave and strong in feeling, was supposed to embody the pathos of freedom-loving and patriotic moods of an advanced Russian person. Kiprensky was looking for "human" in a person, and the ideal did not shrink from him the personal traits of the model.
Portraits of Kiprensky show the spiritual and natural wealth of a person, his intellectual strength. He had an ideal of a harmonious personality, but Kiprensky did not seek to literally project this ideal onto an artistic image. In creating an artistic image, he proceeded from nature, as if measuring how far or close it is to such an ideal. In fact, many of those depicted by him are on the threshold of the ideal, are driven towards it.
Noting the contradictions in the souls of his heroes, showing them in anxious moments of life, when fate changes, previous ideas break, youth leaves, etc., Kiprensky seems to be experiencing along with his models. Hence - a special involvement of the portraitist in the interpretation of artistic images, which gives the portrait a soulful shade. The complexity of the techniques, the character of the figure changed from piece to piece.
The works of romantic artists are oriented towards nature and were clearly written with its use. However, the task of each of the artists - to embody the aesthetic perfection of a simple nature - led to a kind of idealization of images, clothes, situations for the sake of creating an image-metaphor. Observing life, nature, the artist rethought it, poeticizing the visible. This qualitatively new combination of nature and imagination with the experience of ancient and Renaissance masters, giving birth to images unknown to art before, is one of the features of romanticism of the first half of the 19th century. The metaphorical nature was one of the most important features of the romantic when Russian artists were still new to Western European romantic portraiture.
The increased interest in the personality of a person, characteristic of romanticism, predetermined the flourishing of the portrait genre in the first half of the 19th century, where the self-portrait became the dominant feature. As a rule, the creation of a self-portrait was not an accidental episode. Artists repeatedly wrote and painted themselves, and these works became a kind of diary, reflecting various states of the soul and stages of life, and at the same time, they were a manifesto addressed to their contemporaries. Self-portrait was not a custom genre, the artist wrote for himself and here, more than ever, he became free in self-expression. In the 18th century, Russian artists rarely painted author's images, only romanticism with its cult of the individual, the exclusive contributed to the rise of this genre. The variety of types of self-portraits reflects the perception of artists themselves as a rich and multifaceted personality.
Self-portraits of Kiprensky appeared at critical moments of life, they testified to the rise or fall of mental strength. Through his art, the artist looked at himself. At the same time, he did not use a mirror, like most painters; he wrote mainly of himself on the basis of representation, he wanted to express his spirit, but not his appearance.
Another outstanding portrait painter was Venetsianov. In 1811 he received the title of academician from the Academy, appointed for “Self-portrait” and “Portrait of K.I. Golovachevsky with three students of the Academy of Arts ”. These are outstanding works.
It was common for all of them to imagine themselves in a romantic halo, self-portraits were a kind of poetic opposition to the environment. The uniqueness of the artistic nature was manifested in the posture, gestures, and in the unusualness of a specially conceived costume.
The pathos of affirming individuality - one of the most progressive features in the art of that time - forms the main ideological and emotional tone of the portrait, but appears in a peculiar aspect that is almost not found in Russian art of that period. The affirmation of the personality goes not so much through the disclosure of the wealth of her inner world, but rather through a more external way of rejecting everything around her. At the same time, the image undoubtedly looks impoverished, limited.
In the brilliant paintings of I.K. Aivazovsky vividly embodied the romantic ideals of rapture with the struggle and power of natural forces, the perseverance of the human spirit and the ability to fight to the end. A large place in the master's legacy is occupied by night seascapes dedicated to specific places where the storm gives way to the magic of the night, a time that, according to the views of the romantics, is filled with a mysterious inner life, and where the artist's pictorial searches are aimed at the way of extracting extraordinary light effects ("View of Odessa on a moonlit night "," View of Constantinople by moonlight ", both - 1846).
Romanticism in Russia as a perception of the world existed in its first wave from the end of the 18th century to the 1850s. The line of the romantic in Russian art did not end in the 1850s. The symbolists were the direct heirs of the romantics. Romantic themes, motives, expressive techniques entered the art of different styles, trends, creative associations. The romantic outlook or worldview turned out to be one of the most lively, tenacious, and fruitful.
Romanticism as a general attitude, characteristic mainly of young people, as a striving for the ideal and creative freedom, is still constantly living in world art.
romanticism decadence modernism
WESTERN EUROPEAN ROMANCE
Germany... Many of the German romantics were alien to the pathos of advanced social ideas. They idealized the Middle Ages. They gave themselves up to unaccountable emotional impulses, talked about the abandonment of human life. The art of many of them was passive and contemplative. They created their best works in the field of portrait and landscape painting.
An outstanding portrait painter was Otto Runge (1777-1810). The portraits of this master, with external calm, amaze with their intense and tense inner life.
The image of the romantic poet is seen by Runge in Self-portrait. He carefully examines himself and sees a dark-haired, dark-eyed, serious, full of energy, thoughtful, self-absorbed and strong-willed young man. The romantic artist wants to know himself. The manner in which the portrait is executed is fast and sweeping, as if the spiritual energy of the creator should be conveyed in the texture of the work; in the dark color scale contrasts of light and dark appear. Contrast is a characteristic pictorial technique of the romantic masters.
A romantic artist will always try to catch the changeable play of moods of a person, to look into his soul. And in this respect, children's portraits will serve as a fertile material for him. In Hulsenbeck's portrait of children (1805) Runge not only conveys the liveliness and spontaneity of a child's character, but also finds a special technique for a bright mood, which delights the plein-air discoveries of the 2nd floor. XIX century. The background in the picture is a landscape, which testifies not only to the artist's coloristic gift, an admirable attitude to nature, but also to the emergence of new problems in the masterful reproduction of spatial relationships, light shades of objects in the open air. The romantic master, wishing to merge his “I” with the vastness of the Universe, strives to capture the sensually tangible appearance of nature. But with this sensuality of the image, he prefers to see the symbol of the big world, the “artist's idea”.
Runge, one of the first romantic artists, set himself the task of synthesizing the arts: painting, sculpture, architecture, music. The ensemble sound of the arts was supposed to express the unity of the divine forces of the world, each particle of which symbolizes the cosmos as a whole.
The Runge cycle, or, as he called it, the “fantastic musical poem” “The Seasons” - morning, noon, night - is an expression of this concept. The image of a person, landscape, light and color are symbols of the always changing cycle of natural and human life.
Another outstanding German romantic painter, Caspar David Friedrich (1774-1840), preferred landscape to all other genres and during his seventy-year life painted only pictures of nature. The main motive of Friedrich's work is the idea of the unity of man and nature.
Subjectivism in the depiction of the landscape comes into art only with the creativity of romantics, foreshadowing the lyrical disclosure of nature by the masters of the 2nd sex. XIX century. Researchers note in the works of Friedrich "expansion of the repertoire" of landscape motifs. The author is interested in the sea, mountains, forests and various shades of the state of nature at different times of the year and day.
Frederick was a subtle master of seascapes: "Ages", "Moonrise over the sea", "The death of" Hope "in the ice". Friedrich is very precise in drawing, musically harmonious in the rhythmic construction of his paintings, in which he tries to speak with emotions of color and light effects.
It seems more formal to differentiate with artists - "classics" - representatives of classicism of another branch of romantic painting in Germany - the Nazarenes. Founded in Vienna and settled in Rome (1809-1810), the Union of St. Luke united the masters with the idea of reviving the monumental art of religious issues. The Middle Ages were a favorite period in history for romantics. But in their artistic quest, the Nazarenes turned to the painting traditions of the early Renaissance in Italy and Germany. Overbeck and Geforr initiated a new alliance, which was later joined by Cornelius, J. Schnoff von Karolsfeld, and Faith Fürich.
This movement of the Nazarenes corresponded to their forms of confrontation with academic classicists in France, Italy, England. For example, in France, the so-called artists - “primitivists” - emerged from the workshop of David, in England - the Pre-Raphaelites. In the spirit of the romantic tradition, they considered art to be an “expression of the time,” “the spirit of the people,” but their thematic or formal preferences, which at first sounded like a slogan for unification, after some time turned into the same doctrinaire principles as those of the Academy, which they rejected.
The art of romanticism in France developed in special ways. The first thing that distinguished it from similar movements in other countries was its active offensive (“revolutionary”) character. Poets, writers, musicians, artists defended their positions not only by creating new works, but also by participating in magazine and newspaper polemics, which researchers describe as a “romantic battle”. Famous V. Hugo, Stendhal, Georges Sand, Berlioz and many other writers, composers, journalists of France “sharpened their pens” in romantic polemics.
Representatives of the "school", academics rebelled against the language of the romantics: their excited hot color, their modeling of the form, not that usual for the "classics", statuary-plastic, but built on strong contrasts of color spots; their expressive design, deliberately abandoning precision and classic polish; their bold, sometimes chaotic composition, devoid of majesty and unshakable tranquility. But it was not a simple clash of two bright, completely different individuals, it was a struggle between two different artistic worldviews.
This struggle lasted almost half a century, romanticism in art won victories not easily and not immediately, and the first artist of this trend was Theodore Gericault (1791-1824) - a master of heroic monumental forms, who combined in his work both classicistic features and features of romanticism itself ...
The first brilliant successes of romanticism are associated with the name of Theodore Zhariko. Already in his early paintings (portraits of the military, images of horses), ancient ideals receded before the direct perception of life.
The tradition of such dynamics of pictorial narration of romance in France practically did not have, except in the reliefs of Gothic temples.
Gericault's innovation opened up new possibilities for conveying the movement that excited romantics, the latent feelings of a person, and the coloristic textured expressiveness of the picture.
Gericault's successor in his search was Eugene Delacroix. Delacroix managed not only to prove the correctness of romanticism, but also to bless a new direction in painting, the 2nd floor. XIX century. - impressionism.
Delacroix, as a romanticist, recorded the state of his soul not only with the language of picturesque images, but also literally framed his thoughts. He described well the creative process of the romantic artist, his experiments on color, reflections on the relationship between music and other forms of art. His diaries became a favorite reading for artists of subsequent generations.
The French romantic school made significant changes in the field of sculpture (Rude and his relief "Marseillaise"), landscape painting (Camille Corot with his light-air images of the nature of France).
Thanks to romanticism, the artist's personal subjective vision takes the form of a law. Impressionism will completely destroy the barrier between artist and nature, declaring art an impression. Romantics talk about the artist's fantasy, “the voice of his feelings,” which allows the work to be stopped when the master considers it necessary, and not as academic standards of completeness require.
If Gericault's fantasies focused on the transfer of movement, Delacroix - on the magical power of color, and the Germans added to this a certain "spirit of painting", then spanish romantics represented by Francisco Goya (1746-1828) showed the folklore origins of the style, its phantasmagoric and grotesque character. Goya himself and his work look far from any stylistic framework, especially since the artist very often had to follow the laws of the material of execution (when, for example, he made paintings for woven tapestry carpets) or the requirements of the customer.
His phantasmagorias came to light in the etching series Caprichos (1797-1799), Disasters of War (1810-1820), Disparantes (Madness) (1815-1820), murals in the House of the Deaf and the Church San Antonio de la Florida in Madrid (1798). Serious illness in 1792. entailed the complete deafness of the artist. The art of the master after the endured physical and spiritual trauma becomes more focused, thoughtful, internally dynamic. The outer world, which was closed due to deafness, activated Goya's inner spiritual life.
In etchings "Caprichos" Goya achieves exceptional power in the transmission of instant reactions, impetuous feelings. The black-and-white performance, thanks to the bold combination of large spots, the absence of the linearity characteristic of graphics, acquires all the properties of a painting.
The fantastic world of dreams is also realized in his works by the English romantic artist William Blake (1757-1827). England was the classic land of romantic literature. Byron. Shelley became the banner of this movement. The main feature of English painting has always been an interest in the human person, which allowed the portrait genre to develop fruitfully. Romanticism in painting is very closely related to sentimentalism. The romantics' interest in the Middle Ages gave rise to a large historical literature. The recognized master of which is W. Scott. In painting, the theme of the Middle Ages determined the appearance of the so-called Perafaelites.
Ulyam Blake is an amazing type of romantic in the English cultural scene. He writes poetry, illustrates his own and other people's books. His talent sought to embrace and express the world in a holistic unity. His most famous works are considered illustrations to the biblical Book of Job, Dante's Divine Comedy, and Milton's Paradise Lost. He inhabits his compositions with titanic figures of heroes, which correspond to their surroundings of an unreal enlightened or phantasmagoric world. A sense of rebellious pride or harmony difficult to create from dissonances overwhelms his illustrations.
In the work of English landscape painters of the early 19th century. romantic hobbies are combined with a more objective and sober view of nature.
Romantically elevated landscapes are created by William Turner (1775-1851). He loved to portray thunderstorms, showers, storms at sea, bright, fiery sunsets. Turner often exaggerated the effects of lighting and intensified the sound of colors, even while painting the tranquil state of nature. For greater effect, he used the technique of watercolors and applied oil paint in a very thin layer and painted directly on the ground, achieving iridescent shades. An example is the painting "Rain, Steam and Speed" (1844).
The special character of English culture and romantic art opened up the possibility of the appearance of the first plein air artist who laid the foundations for the light and air depiction of nature in the 19th century - John Constable (1776-1837). The Englishman Constable chose landscape as the main genre of his painting.
The constable painted large sketches in oil on the plain air with a subtle observation of different states of nature. In them he was able to convey the complexity of the inner life of nature and its everyday life (“View of Highgate from the Hempstead Hills”, c. 1834; “Hay Wagon”, 1821; “Dethem Valley ”, circa 1828), achieved this with the help of writing techniques. He painted with moving strokes, sometimes thick and rough, sometimes smoother and more transparent. The impressionists will come to this only at the end of the century.
Romantics open the world of the human soul, individual, unlike anyone else, but sincere and therefore close to all sensual vision of the world. The instantaneousness of the image in painting, and not its consistency in literary performance, determined the artists' focus on the most complex transfer of movement, for the sake of which new formal and coloristic solutions were found. Romanticism left a legacy to the second half of the 19th century. artistic personality. The symbol that romantics had to express the essential connection of idea and life.
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As you know, art is extremely versatile. A huge number of genres and directions allows each author to fully realize his creative potential, and the reader is given the opportunity to choose exactly the style that he likes.
One of the most popular and, without a doubt, beautiful art movements is romanticism. This trend became widespread at the end of the 18th century, embracing European and American culture, but later reaching Russia. The main ideas of romanticism are the pursuit of freedom, perfection and renewal, as well as the proclamation of the right of human independence. This trend, oddly enough, has spread widely in absolutely all major forms of art (painting, literature, music) and has acquired a truly massive character. Therefore, one should consider in more detail what romanticism is, and also mention its most famous figures, both foreign and domestic.
Romanticism in literature
In this area of art, a similar style originally appeared in Western Europe, after the bourgeois revolution in France in 1789. The main idea of romantic writers was the denial of reality, dreams of a better time and a call for the struggle to change values in society. As a rule, the main character is a rebel, acting alone and looking for the truth, which, in turn, made him defenseless and confused in front of the outside world, therefore the works of romantic authors are often saturated with tragedy.
If we compare this direction, for example, with classicism, then the era of romanticism was distinguished by complete freedom of action - the writers did not hesitate to use a variety of genres, mixing them together and creating a unique style, which in one way or another was based on the lyrical principle. The acting events of the works were filled with extraordinary, sometimes even fantastic events, in which the inner world of the characters, their experiences and dreams were directly manifested.
Romanticism as a genre of painting
The visual arts also fell under the influence of romanticism, and its movement here was based on the ideas of famous writers and philosophers. Painting as such was completely transformed with the arrival of this trend, new, completely unusual images began to appear in it. Themes of romanticism touched upon the unknown, including distant exotic lands, mystical visions and dreams, and even the dark depths of human consciousness. In their work, artists largely relied on the heritage of ancient civilizations and eras (the Middle Ages, the Ancient East, etc.).
The direction of this trend in tsarist Russia was also different. If European authors touched upon anti-bourgeois topics, then Russian masters wrote on the topic of anti-feudalism.
The craving for mysticism was much weaker than that of Western representatives. Domestic leaders had a different idea of what romanticism is, what can be traced in their work in the form of partial rationalism.
These factors became fundamental in the process of the emergence of new trends in art on the territory of Russia, and thanks to them the world cultural heritage knows Russian romanticism just like that.