Customs, traditions, rituals. Traditions, rites and customs: an example of ritual actions for Maslenitsa and Easter The concept of custom rites rituals and traditions
In order to define the concept of “honoring ceremony”, it is first necessary to identify the essence of the concept of “ceremony”, and for this it is necessary to identify the nature, interactions and relationships of this concept with the concepts of “tradition”, “custom”, “rite” and “ritual”, so There is no single point of view on this issue in the scientific literature.
Tradition (from Latin traditio - transmission, narration, tradition) are elements of social or cultural heritage that are passed on from generation to generation and preserved in certain societies and social groups for a long time. Traditions are certain social institutions, norms of behavior, values, ideas, customs, rituals, etc. Certain traditions operate in any society and in all areas public life.
V.D. Serykh gives a more expanded definition of the concept of “tradition”. "Tradition is a unique social phenomenon, a special form of social relations, manifested in actions, customs, principles and norms of relationships between people passed on from generation to generation. Traditions presuppose habitual ideas and tastes, ideas and beliefs, embodied in various areas of art, in science, politics, determined by social relations and based on the strength of public opinion." Thus, based on these definitions, we found that traditions perform psychological, social and pedagogical functions.
Social role traditions is to consolidate and reproduce established ways of life, types of thinking and behavior in new generations of people.
The pedagogical role of traditions is to transmit moral values, accumulated by the older generation, the younger. In a broad pedagogical sense, education is a purposeful and systematic influence on the consciousness, feelings and behavior of students with the aim of developing in them moral qualities that meet the requirements of public morality.
So traditions are specific form the functioning of social relations in the form of stable, repeating, transmitted mass ideas, principles, feelings that express the value attitudes of people to the main types of spiritual and material activities. Traditions are certain social institutions, norms of behavior, values, ideas, customs, rituals, etc. This means that traditions are not only reduced to their most stereotypical manifestations, such as ritual and custom, but also extend to a wider area of social phenomena.
In the scientific literature, authors consider the concept of “custom” in accordance with the specifics of its content and purpose. L.G. Nabiullin considers “custom as a generally accepted order, a way of action, a generally accepted norm of behavior, that is, it is something that has already become familiar, internalized, and firmly established in the everyday life of the people.” This is a traditionally accepted order, a customary way of action, observed due to firmly established habits, passed on from generation to generation and protected by public opinion." The social, psychological and pedagogical roles of custom are the same as traditions, but the scope of their action is already different. If traditions take place in all spheres of spiritual and material life, then the custom exists only in certain areas of life, mainly in the spheres of everyday life, communication, and family relationships.
Custom- a stereotypical way of behavior that is reproduced in a certain society or social group and is familiar to their members. Outdated customs in progress historical development are replaced with new ones.
In the history of culture, the concepts of “custom”, “rite”, “ritual”, “ceremony” were not always distinguished. In modern scientific literature, attempts are made to distinguish, define and identify the essence of these concepts.
According to L.G. Nabiullina, custom is often identified with rite, which is a similar action in similar circumstances repeated for a long time. And if custom differs from tradition in a narrower sphere of manifestation, then from ritual it differs in the nature of the action. A custom is a practical action, the task of which is to provide a role model, to show how to act in order to inherit existing experience in behavior, work, lifestyle and achieve real results.
Rite from custom, according to Doctor of Philosophy N.A. Kostikov, is distinguished by its symbolism, imagery, and convention. Characteristic of the ritual is decoration of its entire complex. The Russian term “rite” is based on the word “to dress,” which means to bring into proper form, to organize, to decorate, to clean, to make ceremonial and beautiful. In this regard, N.A. Kostikov notes: “The word “rite” reeks of hoary antiquity, with its movement of Old Believers, mummers, and church services.
According to S.I. Ozhegov, the rite is a specific, unique ceremony.
But the term “ceremony” still has a broader meaning. Ceremony includes any official, including ceremonial, action, including a ritual, the order of which is pre-agreed, stipulated, and deviation from it is considered unacceptable. So, for example: receiving ambassadors, presenting credentials, presenting state awards, a reception in honor of some anniversary or holiday. In the broadest interpretation, a ceremony is considered an external form of carrying out any official actions in relations between people. The ceremony is the plan itself, the order of the ceremony.
V.D. Karandashov notes: “... in our understanding, ceremonies are the same rituals, but more dynamic, solemn, official, since they always express the content of those rituals and traditions that are associated with the most significant events in public and personal life.” The ceremony expresses the content of those traditions that are associated with the most significant events in public life."
G.A. Ashev notes that rituals cannot be considered as an “established order.” He believes that rituals originated and developed under the decisive influence of one or another socio-economic formation as one of the varieties of traditions, since they always represented a kind of symbolic actions, carried out for a long time according to tradition and only then according to the “established order”. Over time, traditional rituals are fixed not only in the socio-psychological consciousness, but also enshrined in a certain sign system - in the so-called written documents: in laws, charters, orders, directives, instructions, recommendations, methods.
Ritual ( from lat. ritualis - ritual) - a type of ritual, a historically established form of complex symbolic behavior, an ordered system of actions (including speech); expresses certain social and cultural relationships and values. In ancient religions it served as the main expression of cult relations. Ritual plays an important role in the life of society as a traditionally developed method of social education. In modern society, it is preserved mainly in the field of ceremonial forms of official behavior and everyday relations (civil rituals, etiquette, diplomatic protocol, etc.).
When considering rituals from the point of view of their form and content, it must be borne in mind that these categories, depending on the connection and at what structural level they were considered, have different meanings. First, rituals are a form of tradition. Secondly, in each specific case their form and content differ. However, one cannot arbitrarily construct connections between elements in rituals that are supposedly reflected by the categories “form” and “content.”
According to V.D. Karandashova's implementation of the ceremony always represents a set of traditional rites and rituals. Ceremonies cannot serve as a form of rites and rituals, since the latter themselves constitute only the basic elements of the content of ceremonies. Rituals are in fact a visual form of concrete sensory expression of certain traditions.
The etymology of the word “ritual”, which comes from Latin word"ritus" - ritual and ritualis - ceremony.
G.S. Karneev, defining the concept of “ritual,” writes that “... rituals express the internal meaning, the content of traditions associated with the most important events in the life of society, determine certain social relations and the existing social order.”
“Ritual is a set of rituals accompanying a religious act and constituting its external design.”
“Ceremonial (lat. Ceremonia - rite) is the officially accepted routine for ceremonial receptions, processions, etc.”
In the generally accepted understanding, ritual is defined as a specific way of activity, and “stereotyped activity.”
Ritual is a kind of algorithm for symbolic communication of social subjects. It is passed down from generation to generation and plays an important role in social integration society. Possessing a huge degree of social significance, the rituality of symbolic actions performs a socio-normative function in festive communication. Yu. S. Martemnov and Yu. A. Shreider were the first to substantiate ritual symbolic action as an intrinsically valuable behavior of social subjects. The importance of this type of action for organizing holiday communication is emphasized by N. A. Khrenov. Exploring the socio-psychological aspects of the theory of spectacles, he revealed the suggestive influence of ritual-symbolic action, both on the performers themselves and on those who contemplate it.
The socio-psychological nature of ritual-symbolic actions not only characterizes their genetic connection with the game, but also indicates their socio-normative nature and justifies the principles of the festive communication they organize. However, the normative prescription and the established procedure for performing a symbolic action do not eliminate the opportunity for each person to demonstrate their understanding of the meaning of this action in active improvisation.
Active improvisation becomes possible only if social subjects are fluent in the artistic process, in the languages of which symbolic action is organized. In relation to symbolic action, the concept “CODE” (or language of communication) can be used in two senses: as a plan of content or as a plan of expression of symbolic action. The following “codes” are used in the symbolic action of the holiday:
· ACTIONAL – specific ceremonial actions, the meaning of which lies in the order of their execution;
· ATTRIBUTIVE – objects used as a means of expressing the meaning of a symbolic action;
· FUNCTIONAL-ROLE – actions – role bearers in symbolic action, are determined by the normative requirements of the culture of celebration;
· LOCATIVE – ritually marked places of action;
· TEMPORAL – time points or segments to which symbolic actions are confined;
· VERBAL – a verbal-poetic type of texts that attributively belong to a specific symbolic action;
· MUSICAL – intonation sound series in combination with words or actions;
· FIGURATIVE – conventionally tragic symbols and symbols of paraphernalia.
The dominant symbolic action in festive communication in one case may be the process of action itself, in another - an object, in a third - a word, in a fourth - a character, in a fifth - a place of action. All elements of symbolic action, belonging to different sociocultural codes, are united by ritual semantics. They interact in two ways: through functional interaction and through functional overlay of one code on another. The last path forms a specific holiday - a CEREMONY.
The following types of ceremonies have become widespread in the modern holiday:
· ANNOUNCING CEREMONY (memorable garlands, wreaths, flowers);
· AWARDING CEREMONY (government awards, memorial signs, certificates, medals);
· AWARD CEREONIES (honorary titles, work grades);
· CEREMONY-“ORDINATION” (heroes of ritual action);
· WELCOME CEREMONY (one group of participants addressed to another);
· GREAT CEREMONY (heroes or guests of the holiday).
Thus, having analyzed the concepts of “custom”, “rite”, “tradition”, “ritual”, “ceremony” we have identified a number characteristic features, combining all these concepts:
· Orderly system of actions;
· Social significance;
· Artistic design of actions.
Specific features of the ceremony are:
1. The demonstrative nature of the actions is emphasized, when each phrase of the ceremony is separated from the previous stop of the action;
2. The accentuating nature of the action, emphasizing the intrinsic value of ceremonial behavior.
The entire ceremony is performed against a background of increasing sound and musical background. Music in symbolic actions performs various functions, but its importance is especially great as an integrator of the emotional and psychological state of the participants. A state that in symbolic action acquires a kind of “channel” for the outpouring of feelings that have arisen.
We see that people’s desire to brightly, beautifully, solemnly and memorablely celebrate the key events of their lives is determined by giving these events the forms of holidays and rituals. Events such as a wedding, birth of a child, coming of age, etc. are turning points in people's lives, changing their relationships with others, giving them new rights and making new demands. And it is quite understandable that people want to celebrate these events with solemn, memorable rituals that pass from generation to generation in a certain established, fixed form and express the inner meaning and content of this event.
Ritualism is an integral part of culture, reflecting the spiritual essence of the people, their worldview in various periods of historical development, a complex and diverse phenomenon that performs the functions of transferring to subsequent generations the experience accumulated in the struggle for existence, a unique human reaction to living conditions, a specific form of expression of people's aspirations and aspirations.
Historical change of social formations, living conditions,
The needs and relationships of people also influence the development of holidays and rituals. As a result of changes in reality, ritual goes through a long and complex path of evolution. Some rituals die out, those that conflict with the worldview of people are transformed, others are transformed, in which new content is put into previous forms, and, finally, new rituals are born that meet the needs and requirements of the new era.
What does the concept of “rite” consist of? What is its essence? Why at all times, starting with the primitive communal system, people celebrated the most outstanding events of their lives with solemn ritual actions.
The term “order” comes from the verb “to rite”, “to decorate” - to decorate. The ritual is a kind of break in everyday life, a bright spot against the background of everyday life. It has the amazing property of influencing a person’s emotional world and at the same time inducing in everyone present a similar emotional state, which contributes to the affirmation in the consciousness of the basic idea for the sake of which it is performed.
The first elements of ritual arose long before the appearance Christian religion from the needs of people in solemnly joyful and solemnly sorrowful moments of life to gather together and in a certain way express the feelings that gripped them. This is the socio-psychological nature of ritual.
Each ritual has its own content, but it is always a conditional action, the purpose of which is to express symbolic form specific ideas and certain social ideas. Rituals reflect the diverse connections and relationships of people in society.
“This is a symbolic and aesthetic expression (and manifestation) of the collective ties of society, the collective essence of man, ties that not only connect a person with his contemporaries, but also unite him with his ancestors. The ritual is created as an expression of the spirit, habits, traditions, way of life of society,” it reflects the real life of a person, his connections and relationships with society, with the people around him. Ritual is one of the ways of existing traditions.
In the complex of social phenomena, traditions manifest themselves as one of the forms of consolidation, preservation and transmission of certain social relations from one generation to another. Traditions, as firmly established, habitual ideas of people, are born in response to the demands of life and exist as long as they meet the needs of a particular group of people.
Tradition is a broader social phenomenon, a special form of consolidation of social relations, expressed in stable and most general actions and norms of social behavior passed on from generation to generation. The content of traditions is determined by the social relations that gave rise to them, and therefore traditions are a product of certain historical conditions.
Traditions are one of the powerful means of influencing a person. The development of society goes from the past to the present, from the present to the future, therefore, in society, on the one hand, there are always traditions in which the experience of past generations is concentrated, on the other, new traditions are born that concentrate the experience of today, corresponding to a new worldview.
Changes in living conditions, needs and relationships of people also have an impact on the development of holidays and rituals. As a result of changes in reality, rituals go through a long and complex path of evolution, are modified and changed.
There is much in common between traditions, customs and rituals: they all represent forms of transmission to new generations of social experience accumulated by society, and this transmission occurs in a vivid figurative form with the help of conditionally symbolic actions.
Traditions cover more wide circle phenomena than holidays and rituals. They are found in all spheres of social life and manifest themselves as one of the forms of consolidation, preservation and transmission of certain social relations from one generation to another. Thus, we will focus on the following definitions of the main concepts used.
Tradition is a social phenomenon that reflects historically established and passed down from generation to generation customs, order, norms of behavior, a special form of social relations, expressed in common actions and preserved by the power of public opinion.
Custom is a narrower concept compared to tradition. This is a rule established in a particular social environment that regulates the behavior of people in public life. Enforcement is not ensured by the state. It is maintained through its repeated repetition and application over a long period of time.
A holiday is a solemn form of commemorating various events in personal or public life, based on the beliefs and customs of the people, a day free from work and everyday everyday worries.
A ritual is a social phenomenon, which is a set of conventionally symbolic actions established among the people, expressing a certain magical meaning associated with the celebrated events of personal or public life; This is a kind of collective act, which is strictly determined by tradition, as well as the external side of a person’s religious life and beliefs.
Ritual is the order of performing a ritual, a sequence of conditionally symbolic actions that express the main idea of the holiday, the external manifestation of a person’s beliefs.
These concepts in everyday life tend to expand their scope and are quite often replaced by one another. Nevertheless, dividing them and defining their content from broader to narrower seems legitimate to us, since it allows us to freely operate with them in the course of our reasoning and distinguish one from the other.
The history of peoples is a continuous ethnogenesis, that is, a process of continuous emergence and development of ethnic communities. Modern humanity is represented by a whole variety of ethnic groups: tribes, nationalities, and nations live on Earth (which is associated with the diversity of their living conditions).
It is no coincidence that scientists say ironically: it is easier to count stars than ethnic groups.
Indeed, science has still not been able to establish how many ethnic groups live on Earth. The number of states is known exactly - 226. And what about ethnic groups? They number from 3 to 5 thousand (it all depends on the calculation method).
The demographic situation can be traced more accurately. Back at the beginning of the 20th century. The world's population was approaching 2 billion people, and by the end of the century - already 6 billion people. Over the course of a century, the world's population has tripled.
In order to be able to consider ethnic diversity in a certain system, experts propose to classify the peoples of the world. The basis for classification may vary. In particular, they are classified on the following grounds: geographical, linguistic, anthropological (the content of each of the areas of classification is familiar to you from courses in biology, geography and history).
The geographical classification is well known to you: the peoples of Europe, the peoples of Asia, the peoples of Africa, the peoples of America, the peoples of Australia and Oceania are distinguished. Let's look at the other two classifications in more detail.
Linguistic classification gives an idea of the ethnic kinship of peoples and the common origins of different cultures. It is based, firstly, on the idea of mutual understanding between people belonging to the same ethnic group. Secondly, it takes into account people’s awareness of their cultural and linguistic proximity with other peoples. Thirdly, the relationship between languages and cultures of a more distant type, which is defined by the concept of “language family”. In total, there are 12 language families, and they cover 96% of the 6 thousand known languages of the world.
The Indo-European language family is one of the most widespread on Earth. It includes all Slavic, Baltic, Germanic, Celtic, Romance, Iranian, Indo-Aryan languages. The similarity of languages in many cases testifies to the unity of origin and kinship of these peoples themselves.
Today, the kinship of most language families in Europe, Africa and Asia is considered proven: Afroasiatic (Semitic-Hamitic), Kartvelian (Georgian), Indo-European, Dravidian (the languages of the indigenous population of Hindustan and a number of adjacent areas), Uralic and Altai. There is also a hypothesis that all languages of the world, despite their differences, have some common features. But this is just a hypothesis for now.
Anthropological classification is based on the principle of dividing peoples by race (which you also know). All people on the planet belong to the same biological species.
At the same time, there is an undeniable reality of the physical (bodily) diversity of people. Differences between physical types of people are usually called racial. There are four large races - Caucasians (Eurasian race), Mongoloids (Asian-American race), Negroids (African race) and Australoids (Oceanic race).
The process of ethnogenesis and raceogenesis is continuous. Races constantly mix with each other, as a result of which “pure” races do not exist: they all show many signs of mixing. It is no coincidence that nowadays it is customary to distinguish 25 small races within the large races.
Many people, who at first glance represent one or another “pure” type of ethnic group, show signs of ancient or relatively recent mixtures. The great Russian poet A.S. Pushkin (about whom we often say: “Pushkin is our everything!”) is a descendant not only of noble Russian families, but also of the “arap of Peter the Great” - Hannibal, who became a Russian general (blacks were then called blacks ). And Hannibal’s wife and Pushkin’s great-grandmother was a German - Christina von Scheberch. The great Frenchman Alexandre Dumas was the grandson of a black woman. Examples can be given endlessly. It is important to understand the truth: in the modern multi-ethnic world there are no “pure” races.
Ethnic painting modern Russia also racially diverse. There are 10 small races, over 130 nations, nationalities and ethnic groups living here. The largest ethnic group is Russian (about 120 million out of the 140 million population of Russia), and the smallest ethnic community is Kerki (about 100 people). The ethnic diversity of Russia is due to the fact that the territory of our country passes through the border between the areas (areas of distribution) of two large races - Caucasian and Mongoloid. The processes of racial and interethnic mixing in Russia have a long history. A striking example of this is Russian nobility. V. O. Klyuchevsky wrote that in the service of the Russian Tsar in the XII-XIV centuries. A significant number of immigrants from the Golden Horde crossed over, becoming the founders of future families of the Russian nobility. They received princely titles and land plots, were baptized and took Russian wives. This is how the Apraksins, Arakcheevs, Bunins, Godunovs, Derzhavins, Karamzins, Kutuzovs, Korsakovs, Michurins, Timiryazevs, Turgenevs, Yusupovs appeared in Russia - in total, several hundred noble families with Turkic roots. At the same time, Russians have never been racists or nationalists - people who do not accept representatives of any race, ethnic group, or nation. The pathological manifestations of racism and nationalism (and, as is now often said, Nazism) with which we have sometimes become
we nod today - this is the result, first of all, of the spiritual misery of individual people, as well as the purposeful activities of unscrupulous politicians pursuing selfish goals. From history (and not only from it) you know well the catastrophic consequences of attempts to introduce racist and Nazi ideas. Any racism, nationalism, anti-Semitism is a lie, and a criminal lie, because along with moral norms, constitutional human rights are violated.
NI Basic concepts: ethnicity, nation.
YANNTerms: nationality, national mentality, national traditions and values.
Test yourself
1) In what meaning is the concept of “ethnicity” used in our science? 2) How do the definitions of the concept “ethnicity” differ? 3) What feature of an ethnic group is considered the main one? 4) Why is the concept of “nation”, according to many scientists, not a strictly scientific category? 5) Why do they say that the national mentality is a kind of memory
about the past that determines people's behavior? 6) What, according to Ilyin, are the main values of the Russian people? Why did the philosopher call them supernational? 7) What confirms the ethnic diversity of modern humanity?
Think, discuss, do The Persian poet and philosopher Saadi (1210-1292) wrote:
The whole tribe of Adam is one body,
Created from the dust of one.
If only one part of the body is wounded,
Then the whole body will fall into trembling.
You never cried over human grief, -
So will people say that you are human?
How do you understand the meaning of these lines written in the 13th century? Why do they say that they are still relevant today? Do you agree or disagree with this statement? Explain your position. You are familiar with the formulations: national traditions, National cuisine, national income, gross national product, national characteristics, National Philharmonic Orchestra of Russia, multinational people of Russia. The concept of “national” is used here in different senses, since the concept of “nation” itself has different interpretations. Explain in what sense each of these formulations should be understood. Experts include customs, ritual, and ritual as part of a tradition. Each of these types of tradition has its own
peculiarities. Try to draw them yourself. Give examples to be convincing. In the USSR, nationality was determined and recorded in the passport. IN public opinion a rigid norm of a single, obligatory and blood-born nationality also prevailed. And if the state wrote it down in your passport, then you are exactly what is written down. Ethnologist V. A. Tishkov calls this situation “forced identity” and notes that there are not thousands, but millions of similar examples in the territory of the former USSR. He gives an example close to his heart. His son’s friend Felix Khachaturian, who lived his entire life in Moscow, didn’t know a word of Armenian, and had never been to Armenia, was listed as an Armenian on his Soviet passport, although he was Russian not only in culture, but also in identity.
The scientist poses the question: does such a person have the right to consider himself Russian? Or are the main determinants of ethnic identity the sound of a surname and appearance? The scientist has a clear, reasoned answer. What is your opinion? Explain.
Work with the source
The Russian historian V. O. Klyuchevsky (1841-1911) in his famous “Course of Russian History” noted that living conditions convinced the Russian people that “one must value a clear summer working day, that nature allows him little convenient time for agricultural work. And that the short Great Russian summer can still be shortened by untimely, unexpected bad weather. This forces the Great Russian peasant to hurry. Working hard to get a lot done in a short time and get out of the field in time, and then remain idle throughout the fall and winter. Thus, the Great Russian became accustomed to excessive short-term strain on his strength, got used to working quickly, feverishly and quickly, and then resting during the forced autumn and winter idleness.”
Klyuchevsky V. O. Works: In 9 volumes - M., 1987. - T. 1. - P. 315.
LN Questions and assignments to the source. 1) What is the main idea of the fragment? 2) What features of the Russian mentality were formed under the influence of the described living conditions? 3) What impact do you think modern living conditions have on the mentality of Russians?
Unlike manners and etiquette, customs are inherent to the broad masses of people. A custom is a spontaneously formed, habitual, stereotypical way of behavior of people. Custom - traditionally established order of behavior. It is based on habit and refers to collective forms of action. Customs are mass patterns of actions approved by society that are recommended to be performed. Informal sanctions are applied to violators - disapproval, isolation, censure. The Slavs had such collective actions as the custom of giving birth to the first child in parental home, the custom of feeding the father of a newborn at a christening dinner with a mixture of porridge, pepper, salt, vodka, and sometimes vinegar, the custom of “sealing the grave”, etc.
Inset
M. Kupriyanova English etiquette
Most people associate the word “etiquette” with something like a white starched tablecloth, which is pulled out on holidays. Meanwhile, using the rules of etiquette every day, you get additional pleasure from communicating with others. A few words about specific rules good manners. Who should go through the door first - a man or a woman? There are two legends about this. Our ancestors, to check whether the cave was inhabited, launched a woman first. If she returned, the husbands boldly took over the shelter; if not, they looked for another. In the Middle Ages, a woman walked in front of a man and thereby seemed to protect him - the cult of the Beautiful Lady was so strong that it was unthinkable to attack not only the woman, but also her companion. Today, a man should go ahead of a woman when he can protect her from possible danger, say, when entering a restaurant or an elevator. In other cases, he walks behind.
Approaching the door, a woman expects a man to open it. She can count on the same service when leaving the car. ^Which side should a man walk from a woman - to the right or to the left? Since he is obliged to hold you with his right, his strongest hand,
Hey, we need to move to the right. But there are two exceptions to this rule: if your companion is a military man and if you are moving along the street, then you need to choose the least dangerous or dirty side. Who greets whom first? French military regulations say that the most polite person greets first. But according to etiquette, a young man should greet an older man, a man should greet a woman. But the hand is offered to shake -
in reverse order: woman to man, elder to younger.
In general, a handshake is not a very desirable form of greeting for a woman. When she extends her hand, she often doesn’t know whether they will shake her fingers or kiss her. Therefore, it is better for a woman to offer her hand in a relaxed and vague way, so that the man has a choice. Adapted and abridged from: Moskovsky Komsomol member. 1994. April 7.
Tsivyan T.V. On some issues of constructing the language of etiquette // Proceedings on sign systems. "artu, 1965. T. 2. P. 144.
Custom regulates the behavior of group members and strengthens group cohesion, introduces the individual to the social and cultural experience of the group. Examples of customs are New Year celebrations, weddings, visiting, etc. Compliance with customary norms is ensured by the strength of the group's public opinion.
A custom that is preserved and passed on from generation to generation is called tradition (from lat. traditional- transmission, legend). Tradition is everything that is inherited from predecessors. Tradition is represented by values, norms, patterns of behavior, ideas, social institutions, tastes, and views. Meetings of former classmates, fellow soldiers, and the raising of the national or ship’s flag can become traditional. Some traditions are performed in a casual setting, while others are performed in a festive, upbeat setting. They refer to cultural heritage, surrounded by honor and respect, serve as a unifying principle.
Tradition is a method of reproduction, the process of transmission (transmission) from one generation to another of the basic content of culture - values and norms. Traditions preserve all that is most valuable in culture.
The mechanism of such transfer is:
♦ folklore, i.e. oral tradition;
♦ imitation, repetition of a pattern of behavior. Adequacy is achieved through repeated repetition of actions, and rituals play a great role in this.
In pre-industrial societies, most, and in pre-literate societies, the entire content of culture was transmitted through traditions.
The importance of traditions for the life of society is difficult to overestimate. They play a role similar to heredity in a living organism. And just as disturbances in the apparatus of heredity can lead to the death of an organism, so cultural destruction and loss can lead to the degradation of society.
Traditions do not allow the “connections of times” to disintegrate; they accumulate the cultural experience of previous generations and pass it on to their descendants, which allows them to build their lives not from scratch, but from the place where their ancestors left off. The interruption of a cultural tradition (as a result of natural disasters, wars) leads society to decline. The loss of traditions means the loss of socio-historical memory (public amnesia), as a result, the people cease to feel that they are subjects of history, just as a person who has lost his memory ceases to feel that he is a person. Such people (and society) are easy to manipulate, like a child.
So sometimes cultural tradition interrupted not only forcibly, but artificially. Some forces, in arrogant impatience, are trying to “drive the nag of history” by making a “great leap.” The main way of this is to break the connection between generations, pitting “progressive” children against “backward” fathers: the Hitler Youth in Germany, the Red Guards in China. The sad consequences of this are well known. In general, the desire to renounce the old world, to destroy everything to the ground, to throw Pushkin off the ship of modernity is a manifestation of extreme lack of culture, sociological illiteracy and national unconsciousness.
The implementation of sociocultural norms is often expressed in rites and rituals - a strictly defined sequence of symbolic actions embodying certain social ideas.
Rituals accompanied by the most important points in a person’s life - birth (baptism, naming), growing up (initiation), creating a family (wedding, wedding), death (funeral service, burial, wake). The social meaning of the ritual is to promote better assimilation by the individual of group values and norms. The power of the ritual lies in its emotional and psychological impact. The aesthetic side of the ritual is aimed at this - music, songs, dances, expressive gestures, etc.
Often ritualism is associated only with religion. In fact, ceremonial (ritual) actions are common in all spheres of social reality: the military oath, initiation into students, opening of a monument, inauguration of the president, etc. Even in prison there are rituals. For example, the ritual of “registration”, i.e. welcoming a newcomer into the prison community; ritual of “lowering” - transfer to a low-status group, lower “caste”.
Rituals associated with birth, wedding, death are called family; agricultural and other rituals - calendar ones.
There was such a custom in medieval England. When an apprentice, engaged in unskilled dirty work, was transferred to master printers, who were engaged in clean, highly skilled work, the comrades finally arranged a wash in reverse. The young man was immersed in a vat of waste. It could have been yogurt stored in advance, into which colleagues spat, urinated, and did whatever came to mind for several days. Through the rite of passage, i.e. Literally everyone went through the rite of passage from one job to another. It survived in England until recent days, but in a purely symbolic form.
Many ancient rituals associated with bread. Twinning is the sharing of a cake between named brothers, a wedding ceremony is the ritual of sharing bread between husband and wife. “Bread and salt” - this greeting is a symbol of cordiality and hospitality. In the religious rite of communion, believers “eat the flesh” of God in the form of bread.
Ceremony and ritual
They exist not only in the sphere of religion, as one might think. Symbolic actions permeate all areas of human culture.
Ceremony- a sequence of actions that have symbolic meaning and are dedicated to marking (celebrating) any events or dates. The function of these actions is to emphasize the special value of the events being celebrated for the society or group. A coronation is a prime example of a ceremony that is important to society.
Ritual- a highly stylized and carefully planned set of gestures and words, performed by persons specially selected and trained for this purpose. The ritual is endowed symbolic meaning. It is intended to dramatize this event and evoke awe in those present. An example of a ritual is making a sacrifice to a pagan god.
Most rituals break down into their component parts and elements. Thus, an obligatory part of the aircraft takeoff ritual is waiting for the command “Takeoff is cleared.”
The farewell ritual includes the following: sit on the path, hug, cry, wish a safe journey, do not sweep the floor for three days, etc. The ritual of submitting a scientific dissertation is a complex set of elements.
The history of many rituals goes back to ancient times. For example, no one knows where and when the ritual of “fire dancing” first arose (only written mentions of it, made in the 1st century BC, remain). People can walk on fire and even dance barefoot on all continents. This is done, in particular, by the North American Indians of the Navajo tribe, the peasants of Sri Lanka and Muslims in India, the inhabitants of Landagas (Greece), the shamans of the Chinese Lolo tribe, and the Bulgarians. In Rus', people did not walk on hot coals, but during the celebration of the arrival of spring, young peasants jumped through the high flames of a large fire.
According to K. Lorenz, the ritual has a cultural origin and fulfills three Features: prohibition of fighting between group members; keeping them in a closed community; delimitation of this community from other groups. The ritual deters aggression and unites the group. The accumulation of aggression is all the more dangerous the better the members of a given group know each other, the more they understand and love each other. Sometimes for small gestures best friend, as soon as we cough or blow our nose, we respond with such a reaction as if we had been hit by a drunken hooligan. Human culture is entirely based on ritual. Non-ritualized actions such as picking, scratching, sneezing, spitting, etc. there is very little left in it. They are called uncivil actions.
The rigidity of traditional ritual and the persistence with which we adhere to it are necessary for society. But every person needs them too. After all, adherence to rituals and cultural patterns requires control on the part of our consciousness and will, and insistent control over our behavior further develops the sphere of morality and morality.
Manners and prohibitions
Morals are a type of custom. Manners- these are especially significant and highly respected customs for the group that have moral significance.
Morals reflect moral values society, their violation is punished more severely than violation of traditions. From the word “mores” comes “morality” - ethical standards, spiritual principles that determine the most important aspects of the life of society. Latin moralis means "moral". Mores are customs that have moral significance. This category includes those forms of human behavior that exist in a given society and can be subjected to moral assessment. IN Ancient Rome this concept meant "the most respected and sanctified customs." In many societies, it is considered immoral to walk the streets naked (although it is allowed to do this at home), insult elders, beat a woman, offend the weak, mock the disabled, etc.
A special form of morals are special prohibitions, which are called taboo. This Polynesian word denotes a system of prohibitions on performing certain actions (using any objects, pronouncing words), the violation of which in primitive society punished by supernatural forces.
Taboo- an absolute prohibition imposed on any action, word, object. It regulated the most important aspects of human life: it ensured compliance with marriage norms, protected from dangers associated
in particular, with touching a corpse. Taboo(the process of imposing taboos) was widespread in archaic societies, but taboos have not disappeared in modern cultures.
Taboos served as the basis for many later social and religious norms. In modern society, certain aspects are subject to taboo: consanguineous relationships - the ban on incest (incest); food process - a ban on cannibalism, a ban on eating pork among Jews and Muslims. Desecration of graves or insulting feelings of patriotism are taboo. Taboo is the most powerful one existing in human society a type of social prohibition, the violation of which is punished especially harshly.
Fashion and hobbies
A person learns traditions and customs regardless of his will and desires. There is no freedom of choice here. On the contrary, such elements of culture as tastes, hobbies and fashion indicate a person’s free choice.
Taste- an inclination or predilection for something, most often a feeling or understanding of the graceful. Taste in clothing shapes individual style,
Inset
Prohibitions on food and drink
They exist in different religions. In Orthodoxy, the principle of Christian freedom is observed in matters of food intake. Christ freed people from the obligation to observe the requirements of the Mosaic Law, set out in the Old Testament, in food and drink.
And yet some prohibitions exist: you cannot eat strangled animals and blood (i.e. meat containing blood), for “blood is the soul.” You cannot indulge in excesses in food and drunkenness, for “drunkards will not inherit the kingdom of God.” Special regime food for Orthodox Christians during fasting. God-obedient Jews eat kosher food, i.e. ritual, prepared according to special rules. It is divided into several categories - vegetable, fish and meat. However, fish food is not considered kosher if the fish does not have scales. Meat food is considered kosher if the animal has no wounds. Orthodox Jews do not eat meat with blood. In addition, Jews can only eat animals with cloven hooves and regurgitation. They do not eat meat food after dairy food for six hours, but they can eat dairy food after meat food, but after rinsing their mouth first. The most detailed rules regarding food are developed in Islam. In addition to direct prohibitions, there are also indirect ones, meaning censure or disapproval. Eating pork is absolutely prohibited. Such a ban existed back in Ancient Egypt, among the Jews and then the early Christians. The reason is that pork spoils faster in hot climates and
There are more chances to be poisoned by this meat than by lamb or beef. Islam strictly prohibits the consumption of alcohol. Even being present at a drunken feast is considered a sin for a Muslim. The appearance of the ban on alcohol is not accidental. Drunkenness interfered with the fulfillment of religious orders. For a devout Muslim it is considered
It is a sin to miss at least one of the five obligatory daily prayers. It is condemned, although not prohibited, to eat mule meat. Historians explain this relaxation by the fact that the Turkic peoples, whose menu traditionally included horse meat, joined Islam. It is allowed to eat fish. Sharia - the Muslim code of laws and rules - separately stipulates which parts of the body of animals cannot be eaten: blood, genitals, uterus, tonsils, spinal cord, gall bladder, etc. Finally, the meat of even “edible” animals becomes forbidden if the animal is not slaughtered according to Sharia rules. Abridged by source: AiF. 1994. No. 9.
manner of dressing. Taste is individual, so it shows how much a person has deviated from generally accepted norms, average standards.
Enthusiasm- short-term emotional addiction. Each generation has its own hobbies: tight trousers, jazz music, wide ties, etc.
Fashion- a change in hobbies that have taken hold of large groups.
fashion also understood as the quickly passing popularity of something or someone. Usually these are some minor standards - in clothing, nutrition, behavior, etc. If a person’s taste can remain throughout his life, then hobbies are constantly changing. When hobbies take hold of the masses, they develop into fashion. A taste for twists, short skirts or flying saucers can be called both fashion and hobby. Unlike fads, fashion expresses social symbols. Owning fashionable slacks is considered prestigious not because they are beautiful, but because slacks are a symbol popular culture. Fashionable items are more expensive than ordinary clothes, and their purchase is regarded as success. Fashion trends are more characteristic of an urban environment, where a person’s status and prestige depend not so much on hard work or character, but on lifestyle, level of well-being, and manner of dressing.
If customs and mores are stable and long-term social norms, then fashion and hobbies are among the unstable and short-term patterns of behavior. Fashion - periodic changes in patterns of mass behavior: in clothing, musical tastes, architecture, art, speech behavior. Custom is oriented toward tradition, while fashion is oriented toward modernity, renewal, and innovation.
Fashion is not characteristic of primitive societies, but becomes common in complex, industrial societies. It could not be found in a caste society. In a class society, fashion was limited to a circle of aristocrats; in a class society, it subjugated the masses of people. The so-called mass, or flow, production, when standardized and cheap products are manufactured, is such because it satisfies
Inset
Versailles fashion
From the middle XVII V. The French court of King Louis XIV became the trendsetter. This was the heyday of the absolute monarchy in France. Its manifestation in fashion was the fashion of the nobility and royalty, a continuation of Spanish fashion, adapted to the tastes of the French. Strict geometry was replaced by bright tones and colors, complex cut. From that time on, French taste and fashion conquered all of Europe and did not cease to dominate it for centuries. Baroque fashion introduced new materials and decorations; silk and lace replaced velvet. The clothes became very picturesque. The freely flowing dress embodied fantasy, and with it the desire for eccentricity and luxury. The nobles wore camisoles made of brocade and decorated with gold
ribbons, vests, tight knee-length trousers, silk stockings. Near 1640 wigs with curled curls appeared. The king was the trendsetter. Louis XIV loved extravagant clothes, wore shoes decorated with 40 cm wide ribbons. The king's favorites were allowed to wear a blue cloak with a red lining, embroidered with gold.
meets the needs of the broad mass of consumers. With mass production in modern society Mass art has arrived and its element is fashion.
Fashion has the ability to come quickly and disappear quickly. The cycle of changing people's tastes and preferences is very short - several years. Often, at a new stage, something that once existed returns. The cycle of returning the old lasts 20-30 years. For example, in the 1980s. among young people, torn jeans and scarves on the forehead were in fashion; This is how hippies dressed back in the 1960s. Twist, neck, tight trousers, sleeveless dresses, fire-in-the-jungle ties, walks near bodies of water and cultural conversations (about nature, weather, music, books) became fashionable among teenagers. The culture of the 1960s and 1970s has returned to everyday life, i.e. the clothes, manners, music and spirit of their parents' generation. Teenagers of the “new wave” began to be called fans of their parents’ childhood (hipsters).
Not all segments of human behavior are subject to fashion and hobbies. Religious activities, political activities, family life are regulated to a greater extent by customs and traditions and to a lesser extent by fashion and hobbies.
Flavors determined by the climatic and geographical conditions in which the people live. Thus, among the landlocked Zulus and Mongols, fish has never been a fashionable delicacy, and in Oceania they rarely eat meat. The main product (mass fashion) here is fish, but the residents do not have enough protein and even eat insects.
However, with all the diversity of human tastes, there is one product that is consumed by all peoples - bread. Until the Middle Ages, most of the civilized world used unleavened flatbread as bread. It was only at the very beginning of the Middle Ages that flatbreads in Europe were replaced by bread made from fermented dough. Yeast appeared in Egypt 3.5 thousand years ago, but at first yeast bread was available only to a select few. The experience of its baking was borrowed from Egypt in Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome, where the baker was elevated above other artisans. When people mastered the technology of baking cheap bread, it became a fashionable product available to the general population.
Values
Culture, like society, rests on a value system. Values- socially approved and shared by most people ideas about what goodness, justice, patriotism, romantic love, friendship, etc. are. Values are not questioned; they serve as a standard and ideal for all people. If fidelity is considered a value, then deviation from it is condemned as betrayal. If cleanliness is a value, then sloppiness and uncleanliness are condemned as indecent behavior.
No society can survive without values. Individuals can choose whether to share these or other values. Some are committed to the values of collectivism, while others are committed to the values of individualism. For some, the highest value may be money, for others - moral integrity, for others - a political career. To describe what values people are guided by, sociologists introduced the term "value orientations". They describe individual attitudes or the choice of specific values as a norm of behavior.
So, values belong to the group or society, value orientations belong to the individual. Values are beliefs shared by many people about goals to strive for.
The honor and dignity of the family has been one of the most important values of the human community since ancient times. By showing concern for his family, a man thereby demonstrates his strength, courage, virtue and everything that is highly valued by others. He chose highly respected values to guide his behavior. They became his cultural norm, and the psychological attitude toward their observance became his value orientation. By studying the value orientations of modern Russians using a survey method, sociologists can find out: a) what specific values they prefer to be guided by at work and at home; b) how the social ideals behind private orientations are understood, correctly or incorrectly.
Even the simplest norms of behavior represent what is valued by a group or society. Cultural norms and values are closely interrelated. The difference between a norm and a value is expressed as follows:
♦ norms - rules of behavior;
♦ values - abstract concepts of what is good and evil, right and wrong, due and improper
The basis of the eastern culture of Japan and China is filial piety(Chinese: xiao). It includes such officially recognized duties as respect for parents, unquestioning obedience to them, and the duty to take care of one’s father and mother throughout one’s life. Compliance with this cultural standard alone has so restructured social relations in society that the Chinese people today are perhaps superior to all others in terms of parts of respect for elders.
Values have a common basis with norms. Even common habits of personal hygiene (washing your face, brushing your teeth, blowing your nose into a handkerchief, ironing your trousers) in a broad sense act as values and are translated by society into the language of regulations.
Prescriptions- is a prohibition or permission to do something, addressed to an individual or group and expressed in any form (oral or written, formal or informal).
Values is what justifies and gives meaning to norms. Human life is a value, and its protection is the norm. A child is a social value, the responsibility of parents to take care of him in every possible way is a social norm. Some norms are obvious, perceived at the level of common sense, and we implement them without thinking. Others require tension and serious moral choice. Giving your seat to older people and saying hello when meeting people you know seems obvious. However, staying with a sick mother or going to fight for the liberation of the Motherland (the hero of one of J.P. Sartre’s plays was faced with such a dilemma) is a choice between two fundamental moral values.
Thus, in a society, some values can come into conflict with others when both are equally recognized as inalienable norms of behavior. Not only norms of the same type come into conflict, but also different types, for example, religious and patriotic: a believer who sacredly observes the norm “thou shalt not kill” is asked to go to the front and kill enemies.
People have learned different ways resolve (in whole or in part, real or illusory) value conflicts. For example, the Orthodox
vie and Catholicism do not give hope of salvation to a person who has unjustly acquired wealth: “let no rich man enter the kingdom of God.” To atone for the sin of money-grubbing, Russian merchants donated huge amounts of money for the construction of churches and shelters for the poor. IN Western Europe They found a more radical solution - Protestantism justified wealth. True, Protestantism only justifies what it has acquired through tireless personal labor. Therefore, the Protestant ethic has served humanity a great service, ultimately becoming a teaching not justifying wealth, but calling for diligent work.
Rice. 34. To atone for the sin of money-grubbing, Russian merchants donated huge amounts of money
for the construction of temples
Values are generally accepted beliefs about the goals to which a person should strive. They form the basis of moral principles. In Christian morality, the Ten Commandments include the preservation of human life (“thou shalt not kill”), marital fidelity (“thou shalt not commit adultery”), and respect for parents (“honor thy father and thy mother”).
Different cultures may give preference to different values (heroism on the battlefield, material enrichment, asceticism). Each society has the right to determine for itself what is a value and what is not. For example, the traditional values of American culture include personal success, activity and hard work, efficiency and usefulness, progress, things as a sign of well-being, respect for science. Russian culture has always valued not individualism, but collectivism, which is sometimes respectfully called conciliarity, non-personal success, but the public good, not profit and utilitarianism, but compassion and mercy. At the same time, values such as hard work and respect for science are highly valued not only in American culture, but also in Russian. What other similarities and differences can you find? Ponder this.
The national mentality is a stable phenomenon, but not frozen. While preserving deep values, it certainly reflects the changes that occur with the country at each specific segment of its history. Science calls on society and the ruling elite to take care
to the peculiarities of the national mentality and take it into account when carrying out reforms.
The nature of mentality is greatly influenced by national traditions and values.
Traditions are elements of culture that are transmittedare passed on from generation to generation. They have a dual nature. On the one hand, this is a phenomenon of the psyche (it may or may not be realized); on the other hand, practical phenomena, manifested in actions or things, symbols, clothing and even food. Most traditional rules of behavior are learned subconsciously, at the level of imitation. Of course, initially they are introduced into everyday practice by people consciously. However, subsequent generations lose their understanding of why and why this or that rule was adopted. All that remains is a little-conscious but habitual action.
Traditions vary different nations. For example, in Europe the color of mourning is black, and in China it is white. To put it somewhat crudely, it is believed that an Englishman is a slave of tradition, an American is a slave of a standard. They say about Russians: they harness for a long time, but drive quickly. In general, people are very sensitive to their traditions, and inattention to them can cause not only resentment, but also conflict.
Traditions should be assessed specifically. Their Absolutely no wayluthize- this can lead to the rooting of outdated, or even reactionary forms of social life, to stagnation and degradation (an example is the tradition of human sacrifice, drunkenness, lynching, derogation of women's rights, etc.). At the same time they cannot be ignoredwat, for they ensure continuity in the historical development of the people and contribute to the strengthening of their identity. For example, in Rus', the Christian tradition has become a powerful force, which for centuries has served and continues to serve as a spiritual support for the people and the state, helping to withstand the most difficult situations. Even non-church people these days sincerely accept much of the Christian tradition as a national value.
“National traits cannot be exaggerated;
J, their exceptional." 1
Academician D. S. Likhachev i
It must be said that an Islamic tradition has also been developing in Russia for centuries. It is based on the noblest ideas, the essence of which can be expressed in the words “do good.” A Muslim knows from childhood that good should be done to everyone, even to those who do not deserve it, and at the same time not to boast of good deeds. Goodness has entered the mentality of the peoples professing Islam, and is entrenched in its best traditions and personal qualities. Any work for
deserves respect, and no useful activity seems shameful to a Muslim. Therefore, for many Muslims, such a thing as “non-prestigious work” simply does not exist.
Support in strengthening and preserving traditions are on the-national values are What especially significant and importantfor the individual and society, what is recognized, what people stand withscrap agree. Relying on these values introduces one to historical experience, helps to avoid many misconceptions and mistakes, and makes it possible to see meaning in the life of society and one’s personal life, without replacing it with thoughtless consumerism.
As always, the best way to understand traditional Russian values is to turn to Russian philosophical thought. For example, I. A. Ilyin (1882-1954) identifies 10 fundamental national values (the philosopher called them "treasures") This is national language, national songs And dancing, national fairy tales, historyrite of the people, prayer, lives of saints and heroes. Ilyin also included this farming, that is, labor education of a person from early childhood, because he saw in work “the source of health and freedom”; army- “stronghold of the Motherland”; territorialria- national-state heritage of Russia. In these “treasures” the philosopher saw the “spirit of national education” and believed that the task of each generation was to faithfully transmit this spirit. During the Soviet period, many of these traditions were lost.
As you can see, there is a lot to think about and discuss. The main thing that becomes clear when you think about the contents of the “treasures” is their universal significance (as Ilyin himself said, “supranational”). Of course, the philosopher addressed himself primarily to the Russian people, but, in his own words, “and to every healthy people.” One gets the impression that the author is our contemporary and is addressing us, citizens of a multinational, multi-religious country, because every nation cherishes its native language, its fairy tales, songs, dances, its faith, its saints and heroes , his economy and, of course, “the territory is the land of the Fatherland.”
ETHNIC DIVERSITY OF THE MODERN WORLD
The history of peoples is a continuous ethnogenesis, that is, the process of continuous emergence and development of ethnic communities. Modern humanity is represented by all the diversity of ethnic groups: tribes, nationalities, and nations live on Earth (which is associated with the diversity of the conditions of their life). It is no coincidence that scientists say ironically: it is easier to count stars than ethnic groups.
Indeed, science has still not been able to establish how many ethnic groups live on Earth. The number of states is known exactly - 226. And what about ethnic groups? They number from 3 to 5 thousand (it all depends on the calculation method).
Demographic situation can be traced more accurately. Back at the beginning of the 20th century. The world's population was approaching 2 billion people, and by the end of the century - already 6 billion people. Over the course of a century, the world's population has tripled.
In order to be able to consider ethnic diversity in a certain system, experts propose to classify the peoples of the world. The basis for classification may be different. In particular, they are classified on the following grounds: geographical, linguistic, anthropological (the content of each of the areas of classification is familiar to you from courses in biology, geography and history).
Geographical classification you are well aware: you distinguish the peoples of Europe, the peoples of Asia, the peoples of Africa, the peoples of America, the peoples of Australia and Oceania. Let's look at the other two classifications in more detail.
Language classification gives an idea of the ethnic kinship of peoples and the common origins of different cultures. It is based, firstly, on the idea of mutual understanding between people belonging to the same ethnic group. Secondly, it takes into account people’s awareness of their cultural and linguistic proximity with other peoples. Thirdly, the relationship between languages and cultures of a more distant type, which is defined by the concept of “language family”. In total, there are 12 language families, and they cover 96% of the 6 thousand known languages of the world.
Indo-European language family is one of the most widespread on Earth. It includes all Slavic, Baltic, Germanic, Celtic, Romance, Iranian, Indo-Aryan languages. The similarity of languages in many cases testifies to the unity of origin and kinship of these peoples themselves.
Today, the kinship of most language families in Europe, Africa and Asia is considered proven: Afroasiatic (Semitic-Hamitic), Kartvelian (Georgian), Indo-European, Dravidian (the languages of the indigenous population of Hindustan and a number of adjacent areas), Uralic and Altai. There is also a hypothesis that all languages of the world, despite their differences, have some common features. But this is just a hypothesis for now.
Anthropological classification based on the principle of dividing peoples by race (which you also know). All people on the planet belong to the same biological species.
At the same time, there is an undeniable reality of the physical (bodily) diversity of people. The differences between the physical types of people are usually called racial. There are four large races - Caucasians(Eurasian race), Mongoloids(Asian-American race), Negroids(African race) and Australoids(oceanic race).
The process of ethnogenesis and raceogenesis is continuous. Races constantly mix with each other, as a result of which “pure” races do not exist: they all show a lot of signs of mixing. It is no coincidence that nowadays it is customary to distinguish 25 small races within the large races.
Many people, who at first glance represent one or another “pure” type of ethnic group, show signs of ancient or relatively recent mixtures. The great Russian poet A.S. Pushkin (about whom we often say: “Pushkin is our everything!”) is a descendant of not only noble Russian families, but also of the “amoor of Peter the Great” - Hannibal, who became a Russian general ( blacks were then called blacks). And Hannibal’s wife and Pushkin’s great-grandmother was a German - Christina von Scheberch. The great Frenchman Alexandre Dumas was the grandson of a black woman. Examples can be given endlessly. It is important to understand the truth: in the modern multi-ethnic world there are no “pure” races.
The ethnic picture of modern Russia is also variegated in the racial aspect. There are 10 small races, over 130 nations, nationalities and ethnic groups living here. The largest ethnic group is Russian (about 120 million out of the 140 million population of Russia), and the smallest ethnic community is Kerki (about 100 people). The ethnic diversity of Russia is due to the fact that the territory of our country passes through the border between the areas (areas of distribution) of two large races - Caucasian and Mongoloid. The processes of racial and interethnic mixing in Russia have a long history. A striking example of this is the Russian nobility. V. O. Klyuchevsky wrote that in the service of the Russian Tsar in the XII-XIV centuries. A significant number of immigrants from the Golden Horde came over and became the founders of future families of the Russian nobility. They received princely titles and land plots, were baptized and took Russian wives. This is how the Apraksins, Arakcheevs, Bunins, Godunovs, Derzhavins, Karamzins, Kutuzovs, Korsakovs, Michurins, Timiryazevs, Turgenevs, Yusupovs appeared in Russia - in total, several hundred noble families with Turkic roots. At the same time, Russians have never been racists or nationalists - people who do not accept representatives of any race, ethnic group, or nation. The pathological manifestations of racism and nationalism (and, as they now often say, Nazism) with which we have sometimes become
we nod today - this is the result, first of all, of the spiritual misery of individual people, as well as the purposeful activities of unscrupulous politicians pursuing selfish goals. From history (and not only from it) you know well the catastrophic consequences of attempts to introduce racist and Nazi ideas. Any racism, nationalism, anti-Semitism is a lie, and a criminal lie, because along with moral norms, constitutional human rights are violated.
NI Basic concepts: ethnicity, nation.
YANNTerms: nationality, national mentality, national traditions and values.
Test yourself
1) In what meaning is the concept of “ethnicity” used in our science? 2) How do the definitions of the concept “et-nos” differ? 3) What feature of an ethnic group is considered the main one? 4) Why is the concept of “nation,” according to many scientists, not a strictly scientific category? 5) Why do they claim that the national mentality is a kind of memory of the past that determines people’s behavior? 6) What, according to Ilyin, are the main values of the Russian people? Why did the philosopher call them supernational? 7) What serves as confirmation of the ethnic diversity of modern humanity?
Think, discuss, do
1. Persian poet and philosopher Saadi (1210 -1292) wrote:
The whole tribe of Adam is one body,
Created from the dust of one.
If only one part of the body is wounded,
Then the whole body will fall into trembling.
You never cried over human grief, -
So will people say that you are human? How do you understand the meaning of these lines written in the 13th century? Why do they say that they are still relevant today? Do you agree or disagree with this statement? Explain your position.
You are familiar with the wording: national
traditions, national cuisine, national income, gross
howl national product, national characteristics,
National Philharmonic Orchestra of Russia, multi-
national people of Russia. The concept of “national” is used
is used here in different senses, since different
The very concept of “nation” has a similar meaning. Explain in what
Each of these formulations must be understood in a sense.
Experts include customs, ri-
toile, ritual. Each of these types of tradition has its own
peculiarities. Try to draw them yourself. Give examples to be convincing.
4. In the USSR, nationality was determined and recorded in the passport. Public opinion was also dominated by the rigid norm of a single, obligatory and blood-based nationality. And if the state wrote it down in your passport, then you are exactly what is written down. Ethnologist V. A. Tishkov calls this situation “forced identity” and notes that there are not thousands, but millions of similar examples in the territory of the former USSR. He gives an example that is close to him. A friend of his son, Felix Khacha-turyan, who lived his entire life in Moscow, did not know a word of Armenian, had never been to Armenia, was listed as an Armenian on his Soviet passport, although not only in culture, but also in self-awareness, he is Russian.
The scientist poses the question: does such a person have the right to consider himself Russian? Or are the main determinants of ethnic identity the sound of a surname and appearance? The scientist has a clear, substantiated answer. What is your opinion? Explain.
Work with the source
The Russian historian V. O. Klyuchevsky (1841-1911) in his famous “Course of Russian History” noted that living conditions convinced the Russian people that “one must value a clear summer working day, that nature allows him little convenient time for agricultural work . And that the short Great Russian summer can still be shortened by timeless, unexpected bad weather. This forces the Great Russian peasant to hurry. Working hard to get a lot done in a short time and get out of the field in time, and then remain idle throughout the fall and winter. Thus, the Great Russian became accustomed to excessive short-term strain on his strength, got used to working quickly, feverishly and quickly, and then resting during the forced autumn and winter idleness.”
Klyuchevsky V. O. Works: In 9 volumes - M., 1987. - T. 1. - P. 315.
^H Questions and assignments to the source. 1) What is the main idea of the passage? 2) What features of the Russian mentality were formed under the influence of the described living conditions? 3) What impact do you think modern living conditions have on the mentality of Russians?
§ 9. Interethnic relations and national
policy
Remember:
what is an ethnic community? What is the influence of ethnic diversity on the current situation in the country and in the world? What is the essence of social conflict?
Interethnic (international) relations - relations between ethnic groups (peoples), covering all spheresry of social life.
The main scientific problem is to determine, based on the ideas of humanism and analysis of historical experience, the optimal ways to regulate interethnic relations. The problem is multi-faceted, including issues of history and modern everyday life, spiritual world personality, culture, education, sociology, psychology, economic, political, legal relations; Therefore, scientists use methods from a range of humanities. From the middle of the 19th century. comprehensively explores the problem ethnology- a science that studies the processes of formation and development of various ethnic groups, their identity, the forms of their cultural self-organization, their collective behavior, the interaction of the individual and the social environment.
Ethnology distinguishes two levels of interethnic relations. One level is the interaction of peoples in different spheres of public life: politics, culture, production, science, art, etc. Another level is the interpersonal relations of people of different ethnicities in different forms of communication - work, family and everyday life , educational, informal types of relationships.
Interethnic relations find their expression in human actions and largely depend on individual behavior and its motivation, which is based on personal experience, mastering cultural norms, the influence of family and immediate environment.
The ethnic processes of our time are characterized by two trends: integration- cooperation, unification of different ethno-state communities, bringing together all aspects of the lives of peoples; differentiation- the aspirations of peoples for national independence.
Interethnic relations can be friendly, mutually respectful or, conversely, conflictual and hostile.
INTER-ETHNIC COOPERATION
Spontaneously developing cooperation has been known for many centuries to humanity, which consists of a huge number of communities, collectively representing an ethnically mixed environment, where productive cooperation in production often operates material goods, V Everyday life; the creation and preservation of national cultural values is combined with the knowledge of other cultures.
In the 20th century there is an increase integration tenasdents twofold:
economic, political integration leading to
formation of unions of states;
integration of national entities within multi-
national country. This may be in the interests of
clans living in a single state, contribute to the
re-establishment of this unity.
The domestic experience of interethnic cooperation is significant. Multinational teams worked fruitfully in all sectors of the economy and culture of the USSR. The unity of peoples was clearly manifested in battles, labor, and everyday life during the Great Patriotic War. Patriotic War, in the post-war revival of the country.
Cooperation in the cultural sphere ensured the elimination of illiteracy, the creation of a written language for 50 ethnic groups, and the flourishing of the bright, original art of small peoples. Scientists note that in the Soviet Union in the 20th century. Not a single small culture disappeared and in fact the entire ethnic mosaic of the huge state was preserved, while hundreds of small cultures disappeared in other regions of the world. At the same time, the mistakes and crimes of the totalitarian authorities led to grave tragedies for many people and entire nations. Centuries-old national ties were broken due to ill-conceived administrative-territorial division, and the environmental situation in the regions inhabited by indigenous small ethnic groups worsened. The forced relocation of peoples unjustly accused of collaborating with the German occupiers caused great damage to the dignity of hundreds of thousands of people and had a serious impact on their destinies. It took a long time to restore the violated rights of the peoples of our country.
In Europe and other parts of the world in the last third of the 20th century. Integration in the sphere of economics and then politics developed widely. This is due to the process of globalization, the formation of a post-industrial, information society, as well as the need for unity in the fight against international terrorism.
One example of integration is the activities of the European Union (EU), which unites (2005) 25 states with
population of 450 million people speaking 40 languages. The EU has introduced a single citizenship and a single currency - the euro. Supranational authorities have been created: the European Parliament, the Council of the EU, the European Court. The EU Constitution has been drafted. However, it can come into force only after it is approved by all EU countries (by a parliamentary decision or a popular referendum). Russia does not remain aloof from the integration processes of the 21st century. This manifests itself in particular:
in caring for the formation of a common economic, humane
nitarian legal space with several countries,
included in the Commonwealth created after the collapse of the USSR
Independent States;
in negotiations with the European Union on cooperation in the areas
economy, justice, security, science, education,
culture. A large place in the partnership documents is
joint actions to comply with the principle of non-
discrimination, including opposition to any forms
intolerance and racism, respect for human rights.
Along with the tendency towards international integration, there is also a tendency towards differentiation. It manifests itself in different forms. The formation of independent post-Soviet states and the division of Czechoslovakia into two states - the Czech Republic and Slovakia - took place largely peacefully. Armed action accompanied the collapse of Yugoslavia.
I“The more enlightened states are, the more they communicate
i share ideas with each other and the more the intensity increases.
I l and the activity of the universal mind." 1
\: K. Helvetia i
INTERNATIONAL CONFLICTS
You know the concept of “social conflict”. Conflicts between ethnic communities are among those that are significant for the individual and humanity. In scientific works, ethnic conflict is often defined as any form of civil, political or armed confrontation in which the parties (or one of them) mobilize, act and suffer based on ethnic differences.
This definition has caused objections, because it considers conflict as a stage of extreme aggravation of contradictions. A broader interpretation was proposed: ethnic conflict is any competition (rivalry) between groups, from confrontation over the possession of limited resources to social competition, in all cases where the opposing party is defined in terms of the ethnicity of its members .
Interethnic conflicts are generated not by the existence of ethnic groups, but by political and social conditions, in
which they live and develop. Often, the creation of an “enemy image” is facilitated by turning to those pages of historical memory where former grievances and facts (sometimes distorted) of the distant past are imprinted.
Let's consider main causes of conflicts, clearly expressed in the goals and actions of the warring parties.
Territorial reasons- the struggle to change borders, to join another (“related” from a cultural-historical point of view) state, to create a new independent state. These demands are intertwined with the political goals of movements seeking to form their “own” sovereign state. Demands of a separatist nature are especially dangerous, because they directly affect large masses of people and are associated with issues of division or abolition of the state. “We are talking about,” writes one of the Russian ethnologists, “in what state to live, to whom to obey, what language to speak, to whom to pray, how to move, who will protect the lives and property of people, and finally, what to sing a hymn and which heroes and which graves to venerate.”
Economic reasons- the struggle of ethnic groups for the possession of property, material resources, among which, in particular, land and subsoil are of great value.
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