Early Middle Ages culture in brief. The main features of medieval culture and its achievements
The history of the Middle Ages in Europe covers the period from the 5th to the middle of the 17th centuries. within the period, the following stages can be distinguished: a) the early Middle Ages: V - XI centuries; b) the developed Middle Ages: XI - XV centuries; c) late Middle Ages: XVI - middle of XVII centuries. The term "Middle Ages" (lat. Medium aevum - hence the name of the science studying the Middle Ages, medieval studies) originated in Italy during the Renaissance among humanists who believed that this time was a period of cultural decline, in contrast to the high rise of culture in the ancient world and in the new time.
The Middle Ages is the time of feudalism, when mankind made significant progress in the development of material and spiritual culture, and the area of civilization expanded.
The feudal society is characterized by: 1) the domination of large landed property; 2) the combination of large land ownership with small individual farming of direct producers - peasants, who were only land holders, not owners; 3) non-economic coercion in various forms: from serfdom to class incompleteness.
Feudal property (lat. - feodum) is hereditary land property associated with compulsory military service. In medieval society, a hierarchy emerges with a large role for personal vassal-feudal ties.
State passed different stages: the early feudal period was characterized by large but loose empires; for the developed Middle Ages - small formations, estate monarchies; for the late Middle Ages - absolute monarchies.
Feudal law protected the monopoly of land ownership of the feudal lords, their rights to the identity of the peasants, to judicial and political power over them.
Religious ideology and the church played a huge role in society.
Thus, the features of feudal production gave rise to specific features of the social structure, political, legal and ideological systems.
The main features of medieval culture are:
- 1) the domination of religion, God-centric worldview;
- 2) rejection of the ancient cultural tradition;
- 3) denial of hedonism;
- 4) asceticism; medieval art artistic culture
- 5) increased attention to the inner world of a person, his spirituality;
- 6) conservatism, adherence to antiquity, a tendency to stereotypes in material and spiritual life;
- 7) elements of dual faith (Christianity and paganism) in the popular mind;
- 8) fetishizing works of art;
- 9) the internal inconsistency of culture: the conflict between paganism and Christianity, the opposition of scientific and popular culture, the relationship between secular and spiritual, church authorities, duality of value orientations (spirituality and physicality, good and evil, fear of sin and sin);
- 10) the hierarchy of culture, in which one can distinguish the culture of the clergy, knightly culture, urban culture, folk, mainly rural culture;
- 11) corporatism: dissolution of a person's personal principle in social group, for example, estates.
Medieval European culture developed on the ruins of the Roman Empire. In the early Middle Ages, the decline of culture deepened, which took place in late Rome. Barbarians destroyed cities that were the concentration of cultural life, roads, irrigation facilities, monuments antique art, libraries, there was an agrarianization of society with the domination of natural economy, commodity-money relations were undeveloped.
The Church established a monopoly on education and intellectual activity for many centuries. All areas of knowledge were subordinated to church-feudal ideology. With a solid organization and established doctrine at the time of political decentralization, the church also had powerful propaganda tools.
The essence of the ecclesiastical worldview was the recognition of earthly life as temporary, "sinful"; material life, human nature were opposed to "eternal" existence. As the ideal of behavior that ensures the afterlife bliss, the church preached humility, asceticism, strict observance of church rituals, obedience to masters, faith in a miracle. Reason, sciences, philosophy were despised, to which faith was opposed, although certain elements of philosophical and secular knowledge were borrowed from the ancient heritage. The educational system: the so-called "seven liberal arts of antiquity" - was divided into the lower - "trivium" (grammar, rhetoric, dialectics) and the higher - "quadrivium" (geometry, arithmetic, astronomy, music of the part). The works of ancient authors were used: Aristotle, Cicero, Pythagoras, Euclid, but within limited limits. The authority of the Holy Scriptures was placed above all sciences. In general, the system of knowledge of the Middle Ages was characterized by the following features:
- 1) universalism;
- 2) encyclopedism;
- 3) allegorism;
- 4) exegesis (Greek interpretation) - the ability to interpret and give a religious explanation of the Bible.
The universe (space) was viewed as a creation of God, doomed to perish. The geocentric system dominated with various spheres, hell and the abode of God. Each material object was considered as a symbol of the innermost and ideal world, and the task of science is to reveal these symbols. Hence the refusal to study the true connections of things with the help of experience. Symbolism has left an imprint on the entire medieval culture. Words were believed to explain the nature of things. Direct realistic perception of the world in art and literature was often clothed in the form of symbols and allegories.
The feudal-ecclesiastical culture was opposed by folk culture. It is rooted in pre-feudal antiquity and is associated with the barbarian cultural heritage, pagan myths, beliefs, legends, holidays. These traditions, preserved in the peasant environment throughout the Middle Ages, were permeated with pagan religious ideas, alien to the gloomy asceticism of Christianity, its distrust of living nature: it was seen not only as a formidable force, but also as a source life benefits and earthly joys. The popular perception of the world was characterized by naive realism. Forms folk art varied: fairy tales, legends, songs. Folk legends formed the basis of the epic (the Irish epic about the hero Cuchulainn, the Icelandic epic - "the elder Edda", the Anglo-Saxon epic - the poem "Beowulf"). The exponents and carriers of the musical and poetic creativity of the people were mimes and histrions, and from the XI century. jugglers - in France, hooglars - in Spain, spielmans - in Germany, roaming all over Europe.
Art early middle ages lost many of the achievements of antiquity: sculpture and the image of a person in general have almost completely disappeared; the skills of stone processing were forgotten; in architecture, wooden architecture prevailed. The art of this period is characterized by: barbarization of taste and attitude; the cult of physical strength; flaunting wealth; at the same time, he has a lively, immediate sense of the material, which was especially manifested in jewelry and book making, where complex ornament and "animal" style prevailed. Under primitivism, barbaric art was dynamic, its main means of expression was color. Bright objects created a sense of materiality, corresponding to the barbaric sensual vision and perception of the world, far from Christian church asceticism.
In the early Middle Ages VII - IX centuries. there was a certain rise in feudal-church culture at the court of Charlemagne (768 - 814) - the so-called "Carolingian revival", caused by the need for literate people to rule the empire. Schools were opened at monasteries for the laity, educated people from other countries were invited, antique manuscripts were collected, stone construction began, but this rise in culture was fragile and short-lived.
The advanced Middle Ages were marked by significant urban growth and the emergence of universities.
The emergence of cities as centers of crafts and trade meant new stage in the development of medieval culture. The prerequisites for the growth of cities were the intensive development of commodity production and money circulation on the basis of private property. There was a need for literate people; production has given rise to an interest in experiential knowledge and its accumulation; the townspeople are characterized by an active perception of life, sober calculation, efficiency, which contributed to the development of a rationalistic type of thinking; intellectual needs and interests grew and, accordingly, a craving for secular education. The church's monopoly on education was broken, although the church dominated ideology. Urban schools competed successfully with monastic schools.
The cities grew in connection with the influx of peasants who fled from their masters or were released on quitrent. Medieval cities were small in terms of population; in the XIV-XV centuries. those of them, where 20 thousand people lived, were considered large. The population of the cities actively fought for their independence from the feudal lords: the cities were either bought off, or gained independence in an armed struggle. Many cities became communes, i.e. they had the right to conduct an independent foreign policy, to have their own self-government, to mint coins, all the townspeople were free from serfdom. In fact, they were city-states that resembled an ancient city-state. The urban population, or the "third estate", became the spiritual leader and the predominant bearer of culture.
With the development of urban culture, secular education appears, universities appear (from the Latin universitas - association, community). In 1088, on the basis of the Bologna Law School, the University of Bologna was opened, in 1167 Oxford University began its work in England, in 1209 - the University of Cambridge, in France in 1160 the University of Paris was opened. In total, by the end of the fifteenth century. in Europe, there were 65 universities (except for Italy, France, England, universities appeared in Spain, Germany, Czech Republic, Poland). Universities were taught in Latin, which has become the European language of culture. A common language and religion created a certain cultural unity in Europe, despite feudal fragmentation and political conflicts. The main faculties (from Lat. Facultas - opportunity) were the junior, where they studied the "seven liberal arts of antiquity," and the older ones, where they studied theology, law, medicine.
In its refined form, spiritual culture was expressed in philosophy. In the course of philosophical disputes, the main directions of medieval scholasticism (from the Latin schola - school) were formed. Two main directions arose: "nominalism" (from the Latin nomina - name), which believed that objectively there are only isolated things accessible to human sensations, and general concepts - "universals" do not really exist, nominalism was the embryo of materialism; "Realism", which believed that only general concepts - "universals" really exist, single things were considered only as a product and an imperfect reflection of these concepts. The main question of scholasticism was the question of the relationship between knowledge and faith. The problem of the relationship between faith and reason was embodied in literature, and in the visual arts, and in music. The religious worldview, as the core of spiritual culture, and the Christian God, as the basis of the moral world of medieval man, determined the subordinate role of philosophy in relation to religion.
Thomas Aquinas (1225/26 - 1274) - the largest scholastic philosopher argued that philosophy and science are the servants of theology, since faith surpasses reason in human existence. He argued that, firstly, the human mind constantly makes mistakes, while faith rests on the absolute truthfulness of God, and, secondly, faith is given to every person, and the possession of scientific and philosophical knowledge, requiring intense mental activity, is available far from everyone.
An outstanding scholastic was Pierre Abelard (1079 - 1142) - a French philosopher, theologian and poet, a bright exponent of free thought, who opposed the extreme forms of both nominalism and realism. His free thinking was based on the priority of reason over faith: "understanding in order to believe." He was declared a heretic with a ban on teaching and writing.
Along with scholasticism in the Middle Ages, there were other areas of philosophy and theology, in particular, mysticism. The mystics rejected the need to study Aristotle and use logical evidence of faith. They believed that religious doctrines are learned not through reason and science, but through intuition, illumination or "contemplation", prayers and vigils. Denying the role of reason in the knowledge of the world and God, the mystics were more reactionary than the scholastics. But among them there were strong democratic sentiments: mystical sects were critical of the feudal system and preached the need to establish a "kingdom of God on earth" without private property, inequality, exploitation. Among the mystics, one can distinguish Bernard of Clairvaux, Johann Tauler, Thomas of Kempis.
In medieval Europe, although slowly, there was a development of science and technology. Thus, Oxford professor Roger Bacon (1214 - 1294), who proceeded from the fact that experience is the basis of knowledge, created "Big Labor" - an encyclopedia of that time. In medieval science, alchemy developed, which expressed the connection between craft, religion, mysticism, magic, occultism. Alchemy preceded the emergence of experimental natural science.
Significant influence the Arab-Islamic civilization, in particular, the works of Al-Biruni (980 - 1048), Ibn Sina (980 - 1037), had an impact on European philosophy and science.
In the Middle Ages, inventions were made that influenced the entire future life of society: the invention of gunpowder, paper, printing, glasses, a compass. Of particular importance was book printing, begun in Europe by Johannes Gutenberg (1400-1468), which contributed to the development of national literatures, the unification of spelling and, accordingly, education, science, and culture.
In the XII - XIII centuries. Latin-language literature flourishes, in particular, the poetry of the vagantes (from the Latin vagary - to wander). The national literature is developing, in particular, the epic is recorded: French - "Song of Roland", Spanish - "Song of Side", German - "Song of the Nibelungs". Knightly literature is being formed: the secular lyric poetry of the troubadours, glorifying "courtly love" (from Old French - courtier), knightly novels. There is an interest in the personality of a person, his feelings. Urban literature is developing in national languages: for example, the novel about the Fox and the novel about the rose were created in French; the predecessor of the Renaissance in France was François Villon (1431 - 1461). The father of English literature is Jeffrey Chaucer (1340 - 1400), who created a collection of poems in the English vernacular, The Canterbury Tales.
In medieval Europe, the place of art was controversial. Art was seen as the Bible for the illiterate. The main task of art is to strengthen religious feelings, to reveal the images of Scripture, works are usually anonymous. It is not realism that is required of the artist, but the disclosure of the ideas of divine holiness. The transition from the space of the outer world to the inner space of the human spirit is the main goal of art. It is expressed in the famous phrase of Augustine: "Do not wander outside, but enter within yourself." Christian ideology rejected the ideals that inspired ancient artists: the joy of being, sensuality, corporeality, truthfulness, the glorification of a person who realizes himself as a beautiful element of the cosmos - it destroyed the ancient harmony of body and spirit, man and the earthly world.
The most important type of art is architecture, embodied in two styles: Romanesque and Gothic. Romanesque architecture is notable for its massiveness, squatness, its task is the humility of man, suppression of him against the background of the monumental greatness of the universe, God. Since the XII century. the Gothic style appears, the features of which are the aspiration upward, pointed arches, stained-glass windows. V. Hugo called Gothic "a symphony in stone". Unlike the harsh, monolithic, imposing Romanesque temples, Gothic cathedrals are decorated with carvings and decor, many sculptures, they are full of light, directed into the sky, their towers towered up to 150 m. The ancient temple was considered the place of life of God, religious ceremonies took place outside, and the temple was perceived as a place of communication for the religious community and special attention was paid to the interior decoration.
The main genre in painting was icon painting. Painting acted as a silent sermon, “speculation in colors”. Icons were seen as an emotional connection with God, available to the illiterate, they are deeply symbolic. Images are often deliberately deformed, conventional, there is a so-called reverse perspective effect for greater impact on the viewer. In addition to icons, art the Middle Ages is also represented by murals, mosaics, miniatures, stained-glass windows.
The basis of musical culture was liturgical singing, praising God in melodies, and then in hymns, combining a poetic text with a song melody. The canonized music - the Gregorian chant - also included chants intended for all services of the church calendar. Another layer of music is associated with the ideology of chivalry (courtly lyrics of the troubadours) and the work of professional musicians-minstrels.
In the developed Middle Ages, applied arts achieved significant success: carpet making, bronze casting, enamel, book miniatures.
In general, medieval art is characterized by: sincere reverence for the Divine, typification, the absolute opposite of good and evil, deep symbolism, subordination of art to extra-aesthetic, religious ideals, hierarchy, traditionalism, underdevelopment of the personal principle - at the same time, medieval culture does not express a frozen forever the state of man and his world, but a living movement. The dynamics of cultural development is largely determined by the interaction and rivalry of the official and folk cultures. On the whole, medieval culture had integrity; there was an authoritarian value system; dogmatism prevailed; it was characterized by a craving for All-unity ("the city of God on earth") through the existing fragmentation of being; the Christian universality of man was opposed to the narrowness of the national class; along with the renunciation of the world, there was a desire for a violent worldwide transformation of the world. Man began to turn to himself, and not only to God, but in full measure this greatest progressive revolution in the history of mankind took place in the Renaissance, prepared by the Middle Ages.
Byzantium occupied a special place in medieval Europe. At the dawn of the Middle Ages, she remained the only guardian of the Hellenistic cultural traditions. But Byzantium significantly transformed the legacy of late antiquity, creating an artistic style, already entirely belonging to the spirit and letter of the Middle Ages.
Moreover, of all medieval European art, it was Byzantine that was most orthodox Christian. In Byzantine artistic culture merged two principles: magnificent entertainment and refined spiritualism. The East had a significant influence on the culture of Byzantium. In turn, Byzantium significantly influenced the culture of Southern and Eastern Europe, especially Russia.
Culturologists call the Middle Ages a long period in the history of Western Europe between Antiquity and Modern Times. This period covers more than a millennium from the 5th to the 15th centuries.
Folk culture this era is a new and almost unexplored topic in science. The ideologists of feudal society managed not only to push the people away from the means of fixing their thoughts and moods, but also to deprive researchers of subsequent times of the opportunity to restore the main features of their spiritual life. “The great dumb”, “the great absent”, “people without archives and without faces” - this is how modern historians call the people in an era when direct access to the means of writing cultural values was closed for them. The folk culture of the Middle Ages was not lucky in science. Usually, when they talk about her, they mention at most the remnants the ancient world and the epic, remnants of paganism.
The early Middle Ages - from the end of the 4th century. the "great migration of peoples" began. Wherever the domination of Rome took deeper roots, "Romanization" captured all areas of culture: the dominant language was Latin, the dominant law was Roman law, the dominant religion was Christianity. The barbarian peoples who created their states and the ruins of the Roman Empire found themselves either in the Roman or in the romanized environment. However, it should be noted the crisis of the culture of the ancient world during the invasion of the barbarians.
High (classic) Middle Ages- at the first stage of late feudalism (XI-XII centuries), craft, trade, urban life were poorly developed. Feudal landowners reigned supreme. During the classical period, or high middle ages, Western Europe began to overcome difficulties and revive. The so-called knightly literature arises and develops. One of the most famous works is the greatest monument of the French folk heroic epic, The Song of Roland. During this period, the so-called "urban literature" developed rapidly, which was characterized by realistic image urban everyday life of various segments of the urban population, as well as the emergence of satirical works. Representatives of urban literature in Italy were Cecco Angiolieri, Guido Orlandi (late 13th century).
Late Middle Ages continued the processes of formation of European culture, which began in the period of the classics. During these periods, uncertainty and fear dominated the masses. The economic upsurge gives way to long periods of decline and stagnation.
In the Middle Ages, a complex of ideas about the world, beliefs, mental attitudes and systems of behavior, which could conditionally be called “ folk culture"Or" folk religiosity "in one way or another was the property of all members of society. The medieval church, wary and suspicious of the customs, faith and religious practice of the common people, was influenced by them. The entire cultural life of European society during this period was largely determined by Christianity.
Medieval European culture covers the period from the fall of the Roman Empire to the moment of the active formation of the Renaissance culture and the culture is divided early period(V-XI centuries) and culture classic middle ages(XII-XIV centuries). The emergence of the term "Middle Ages" is associated with the activities of the Italian humanists of the 15th-16th centuries, who, by introducing this term, sought to separate the culture of their era - the culture of the Renaissance - from the culture of previous eras. The era of the Middle Ages brought with it new economic relations, a new type of political system, as well as global changes in the worldview of people.
The entire culture of the early Middle Ages had a religious connotation.
The images and interpretations of the Bible formed the basis of the medieval picture of the world. The starting point for explaining the world was the idea of a complete and unconditional opposition between God and nature, Heaven and Earth, soul and body. The man of the Middle Ages imagined and understood the world as an arena of confrontation between good and evil, as a kind of hierarchical system that includes God, angels, people, and the otherworldly forces of darkness.
Along with the strong influence of the church, the consciousness of medieval man continued to be deeply magical. This was facilitated by the very nature of medieval culture, filled with prayers, fairy tales, myths, magic spells. In general, the history of medieval culture is the history of the struggle between church and state. The position and role of art in this era were complex and contradictory, but nevertheless, during the entire period of development of European medieval culture, there was a search for a semantic support for the spiritual community of people.
All classes of medieval society recognized the spiritual leadership of the church, but nevertheless, each of them developed his own special culture, in which he reflected his moods and ideals.
Medieval culture developed in line with the period of early (V-XIII centuries) feudalism in the countries of Western Europe, the formation of which was accompanied by the transition from barbarian empires to classical states medieval Europe... It was a period of serious social and military upheaval.
At the stage of late feudalism (XI-XII centuries), craft, trade, and urban life had a rather low level of development. The rule of the feudal lords - the landowners - was undivided. The figure of the king was decorative in nature, and did not personify strength and state power. However, from the end of the XI century. (especially France) begins the process of strengthening the royal power and gradually created centralized feudal states, in which the rise of the feudal economy, contributing to the formation of the cultural process.
The crusades at the end of this period were of great importance. These campaigns helped introduce Western Europe to the rich culture of the Arab East and accelerated the growth of handicrafts.
In the second development of the mature (classical) European Middle Ages (XI century), there is a further growth of the productive forces of feudal society. A clear division is established between town and country, and there is an intensive development of crafts and trade. Royal power is becoming essential. This process was facilitated by the elimination of feudal anarchy. Chivalry and wealthy citizens become the mainstay of royal power. A characteristic feature of this period is the emergence of city-states, for example, Venice, Florence.
2. Features of the art of medieval Europe.
The development of medieval art includes the following three stages:
1. pre-Romanesque art (V-X centuries) ,
Which is divided into three periods: early Christian art, the art of the barbarian kingdoms, and the art of the Carolingian and Ottonian empires.
V early christian period, Christianity became the official religion. The appearance of the first Christian churches dates back to this time. Separate buildings of the centric type (round, octahedral, cruciform), called baptisteries or baptisms. The interior decoration of these buildings was mosaics and frescoes. They reflected in themselves all the main features of medieval painting, although they were greatly divorced from reality. Symbolism and conventionality prevailed in the images, and the mysticality of the images was achieved through the use of such formal elements as the enlargement of the eyes, the incorporealness of images, prayer poses, the reception of different scales in the depiction of figures according to the spiritual hierarchy.
Barbarian art played a positive role in the development of the ornamental and decorative direction, which later became the main part artistic creation the classic Middle Ages. And which already did not have a close connection with ancient traditions.
Characteristic feature arts Carolingian and Ottonian empires is a combination of ancient, early Christian, barbarian and Byzantine traditions, which were most clearly manifested in the ornament. The architecture of these kingdoms is based on Roman examples and includes centric stone or wooden temples, the use of mosaics and frescoes in the interior decoration of the temples.
An architectural monument of pre-Romanesque art is the Chapel of Charlemagne in Aachen, created around 800 AD. In the same period, the development of monastery construction was actively going on. In the Carolingian Empire, 400 new monasteries were built and 800 existing monasteries expanded.
2.Romanesque art (XI-XII centuries)
It arose during the reign of Charles the Great. This style in art is characterized by a semicircular vaulted arch that came from Rome. Instead of wooden coverings, stone ones begin to prevail, as a rule having a vaulted shape. Painting and sculpture were subordinated to architecture and were mainly used in temples and monasteries. The sculptural images were brightly colored, and the monumental decorative painting, on the other hand, was represented by temple paintings of restrained color. An example of this style is the Church of Mary on the island of Laak in Germany. A special place in Romanesque architecture is occupied by Italian architecture, which, thanks to the strong ancient traditions present in it, immediately stepped into the Renaissance.
The main function of Romanesque architecture is defense. In the architecture of the Romanesque era, no exact mathematical calculation was used, however, thick walls, narrow windows and massive towers, being stylistic features of architectural structures, carried a defensive function at the same time, allowing the civilian population to take refuge in the monastery during feudal strife and wars. This is due to the fact that the formation and strengthening Romanesque style took place in the era of feudal fragmentation and its motto is the saying "My home is my fortress."
In addition to cult architecture, secular architecture was actively developing, an example of this is the feudal castle - a house - tower of a rectangular or multifaceted shape.
3.Gothic art (XII-XV centuries)
It arose as a result of urban development and the emerging urban culture. The symbol of medieval cities is the cathedral, which is gradually losing its defensive functions. Style changes in the architecture of this era were explained not only by the change in the functions of buildings, but by the rapid development of construction technology, which by that time was already based on accurate calculation and verified design. Abundant convex details - statues, bas-reliefs, hanging arches were the main decorations of buildings, both from the inside and from the outside. World masterpieces gothic architecture are the Cathedral Notre dame de paris, Milan Cathedral in Italy.
Gothic is also used in sculpture. A three-dimensional plastic of various forms, portrait personality, real anatomy of figures appears.
Monumental Gothic painting is mainly represented by stained glass. Window openings are significantly increased. Which now serve not only for lighting, but more for decoration. Thanks to the duplication of glass, the finest nuances of color are conveyed. Stained-glass windows are beginning to acquire more and more realistic elements. The French stained-glass windows of Chartres and Rouen were especially famous.
The Gothic style also begins to predominate in book miniature, a significant expansion of the scope of its application takes place, there is a mutual influence of stained glass and miniatures. The art of book miniature was one of the greatest achievements of the Gothic. This type of painting has evolved from the "classical" style to realism.
Among the most outstanding achievements of Gothic book miniature are the Psalter of Queen Ingeborg and the Psalter of Saint Louis. A remarkable monument of the German school of the early XIV century. is the "Manesse Manuscript", which is a collection of the most famous songs of German minezingers, decorated with portraits of singers, scenes of tournaments and court life, coats of arms.
Literature and music of the Middle Ages.
During the period of mature feudalism, along with and in an alternative to church literature, which had priority, secular literature developed rapidly. Thus, chivalrous literature received the greatest distribution and even some approval of the church, which included a chivalrous epic, a chivalrous romance, the poetry of the French troubadours and the lyrics of the German minisingers. They sang the war for the Christian faith and glorified the feat of chivalry in the name of this faith. An example of the chivalrous epic of France is the "Song of Roland". Its plot was the campaigns of Charlemagne to Spain, and the main character was Count Roland.
At the end of the VII century. Under the auspices of Charlemagne, a book-writing workshop was founded, where a special Gospel was performed.
In the XII century. Knightly novels written in the genre of prose appeared and quickly became widespread. They told about the various adventures of the knights.
In contrast to the chivalrous romance, urban literature develops. A new genre is being formed - a poetic short story, which contributes to the formation of the townspeople as a whole.
During the development of Gothic, there were changes in music. A separate group in the music of the Middle Ages was the art of the Celts. The Celts' court singers were bards who performed heroic songs - ballads, satirical, martial and other songs to the accompaniment of a stringed instrument - moles.
Since the end of the XI century. in the south of France, the musical and poetic creativity of the troubadours began to spread. Their songs glorified knightly love and heroic deeds during the crusades. The work of the troubadours evoked many imitations, the most fruitful was the German minnesang. The songs of the minnesingers - “singers of love” - were not only the singing of beautiful ladies, but also the glorification of influential dukes. Minnesingers served at the courts of the rulers, participated in numerous competitions, and traveled around Europe. The flowering of their creativity came in the XII century, but already in the XIV century. they were replaced by meistersingers, or "singing masters", united in professional workshops. The development of these vocal workshops marked a new stage in the medieval singing art.
In the IX century. polyphony existed, but by the end of the 11th century. voices are becoming more and more independent. With the emergence of polyphony in Catholic churches, an organ becomes necessary. The development of church professional polyphony was also greatly facilitated by numerous singing schools at large European monasteries.
XIII century in the history of music is called the century of old art, while the art of the XIV century. it is customary to call it new, and it is at this time that it begins to revive musical art Renaissance.
Conclusion.
The most important feature of European medieval culture is the special role of the Christian doctrine and the Christian church. For many centuries, only the church remained the only social institution uniting all European countries, tribes and states. It was she who had a huge influence on the formation of the religious worldview of people, spreading her main values and ideas.
All classes of medieval society recognized the spiritual kinship of the church, but nevertheless, each of them developed its own special culture, in which it reflected its moods and ideals. The dominant class of secular feudal lords in the Middle Ages was chivalry. It was the knightly culture that included a complex ritual of customs, manners, secular, courtiers and military knightly entertainments, of which knightly tournaments were especially popular. Knightly culture created its own folklore, its songs, poems, in its depths a new literary genre- chivalrous romance. Love lyrics occupied a large place.
With all the variety artistic means and stylistic features of the art of the Middle Ages also has some common features: a religious character, tk. the church was the only beginning to unite the scattered kingdoms; the leading place was given to architecture. Nationality, because the people themselves were the creator and spectator; emotional beginning deep psychologism, the task of which was to convey the intensity of religious feelings and the drama of individual subjects.
Along with the domination of Christian morality and the all-embracing power of the church, which manifested itself in all spheres of the life of medieval society, including art and culture, nevertheless, this era was a distinctive and interesting stage in the development of European culture and civilization. Some elements of modern civilization were laid down precisely in the Middle Ages, which in many ways prepared the age of the Renaissance and Enlightenment.
The university
Chivalry
Carnival
A brief outline of the culture of the Middle Ages (V-XV centuries)
Lecture 4
Medieval culture: the phenomena of carnival, chivalry, university
The culture of the Middle Ages powerfully and visibly expressed itself in architecture in the established artistic styles - Romanesque and Gothic. This topic is presented in detail in the course manuals, so students will be able to study it on their own, paying special attention to the periods of development of the Romanesque and Gothic styles in France, Spain, Italy, Germany.
The Middle Ages in Europe were defined by Christian culture. Feudalism was asserted with a rural community and the dependence of man on it and the feudal lord. Many European countries have self-determined and strengthened, the center of cultural improvement is not a set of city-states or one Roman Empire, but the entire European region. Spain, France, Holland, England and other countries come to the fore in cultural development. Christianity, as it were, unites their spiritual efforts, spreading and asserting itself in Europe and beyond. But the process of the formation of statehood among the peoples of Europe is far from complete. Big and small wars emerge, armed violence is both a factor and a brake on cultural development.
A person feels like a community member, and not a free citizen, as in ancient society. The value of “serving” God and the feudal lord arises, but not oneself or the state. Slavery is replaced by circular communal responsibility and subordination to the community and the feudal lord. Christianity supports the feudal estate, submission to God and master. The Church extends its influence to all the main spheres of the life of society, to family, education, morality, science. Hereticism and all non-Christian dissent are persecuted. Since the establishment of Christianity as the state religion of the Roman Empire (325), it rigidly subjugated the entire life of European society, and this continued until the Renaissance.
Thus, the defining feature of medieval culture, the essence of the phenomenon of the culture of the Middle Ages, is a worldview based on Christian doctrine. The theological system of Christianity embraced any of the cultural phenomena, in turn, any of the phenomena had its own specific hierarchical place. Hierarchical views are embodied in public life(seniors are vassals; ethics of personal service), in the spiritual realm (God is Satan).
However, it would be wrong and one-sided to assess the culture of the Middle Ages only negatively. She developed and achieved success. In the XII century. in Flanders, a loom without a mechanical motor was invented. Sheep breeding is developing. In Italy and France, they learned how to make silk. In England and France, they began to build blast furnaces and use coal in them.
Despite the fact that knowledge was subordinated to the Christian faith, in a number of European countries there are religious and secular schools, higher educational establishments... In the X-XI centuries, for example, in higher schools Spain has already been taught philosophy, mathematics, physics, astronomy, law, medicine, and Muslim theology. The activity of the Roman Catholic Church, the failure of its ministers to comply with the norms of morality and religious worship, often caused discontent and ridicule among the broad masses. For example, in the XII-XIII centuries in France, the movement of vagants - wandering poets and musicians - became widespread. They sharply criticized the church for greed, hypocrisy and ignorance. Poetry of minstrels and troubadours emerged.
Poetry and prose of chivalry develops, masterpieces are recorded folk epic("Song of the Nibelungs", "Song of my Side", "Beowulf"). Biblical and mythological painting and icon painting are widely spread. In the spirituality of people, Christianity affirmed not only humility, but also the positive ideal of salvation. Following the commandments of God and honoring him, a person can achieve such a desirable state and the state of the whole world, which are characterized by the overcoming of all bondage and evil.
Since the XIV century, European Catholicism has been experiencing an acute crisis generated by the internal struggle of popes and other hierarchs for religious and secular power, non-observance of moral norms by many clergymen, their desire for wealth and luxury, and deceiving believers. The crisis of the Catholic Church was significantly aggravated as a result of the actions of the Inquisition and the Crusades. The Catholic faith was losing its status as the spiritual foundation of European culture. Orthodoxy functioned more evenly in Byzantium and other countries of Eastern Europe.
Byzantium, or the Eastern Roman Empire, arose in 325 after the split of the Roman Empire into Western and Eastern. In 1054, a division of the Christian church takes place. Orthodoxy was established in Byzantium.
Byzantine culture has existed for 11 centuries, being a kind of "golden bridge" between Western and Eastern culture. In its historical development, Byzantium went through five stages:
First stage (4th - mid-7th centuries). The independence of Byzantium was affirmed, and: power, military bureaucracy, the foundations of the "correct" faith based on the traditions of pagan Hellenism and Christianity were formed. Outstanding monuments of the mid-5th-6th centuries - Mausoleum of Galla Placidia in Ravenna; Hippodrome; Temple of Sophia (Anfimy and Isidor); mosaic paintings of the Church of San Vitale in Ravenna; mosaics in the Church of the Assumption in Nika; the icon "Sergius and Bacchus".
Second stage (second half of the 7th - first half of the 9th centuries). The invasions of Arabs and Slavs are reflected. The ethnic basis of culture is consolidated around the Greeks and Slavs. There is an alienation from the Western Roman (European) elements of culture. The Church triumphs over secular power. Orthodox-conservative foundations of Orthodoxy are strengthening. Culture is more and more localized, acquires originality, gravitates towards eastern cultures.
Third stage (second half of the 9th - mid-11th centuries). "Golden Age" of Byzantine culture. Schools, universities, and libraries emerged.
The fourth period (second half of the 11th - early 13th centuries). In 1071 Byzantium was defeated by the Turks, in 1204 it was subdued by the knights of the Fourth Crusade. The newly formed Latin Empire is losing its authority. The Orthodox Church assumes the protective and unifying function. Cultural development slows down significantly.
The first stage (1261 - 1453). After the liberation of the Latinian knights, Byzantium was unable to restore its former greatness due to internal unrest and civil strife. Developing: religious and literary creativity, theology, philosophy, miniature, icon, fresco painting.
After the capture of Constantinople by the Turks in 1453, Byzantium ceased to exist.
The features of Byzantine culture are:
Orthodoxy as an orthodox-conservative version of Christianity as a spiritual basis
A small degree of losses on the part of the conquerors in comparison with Western Roman culture
The cult of the emperor as a representative and spokesman for secular and spiritual power
Protection of the power of the emperor, preservation of the unity of the state through the efforts of the Orthodox Church
Traditionalism and the canon of the symbols of faith of Orthodoxy
Since 622, it appears first in Mecca, then in Medina on the Arabian Peninsula new religion- Islam (obedient to God). The spiritual foundations of medieval Arab-Muslim culture have some common features with Christianity in terms of ideas about God and monotheism, in terms of the relationship between God and being, God and man.
The establishment of Christianity and Islam as monotheistic religions contributed to the general development of the culture of many peoples, the formation of its historically new types.
The lecture reveals in more detail the phenomenal phenomena of medieval culture: carnival, chivalry, university - which will allow you to simultaneously comprehend universalism and the depth of contradictions of medieval culture, the features of which have been preserved in culture until the 21st century.
Questions for self-control
1. Give brief description culture of the European Middle Ages.
2. Explain what is the essence of medieval culture.
3. What, in your opinion, is the uniqueness of Byzantine culture?
4. Describe the most famous monument of Byzantine architecture - the Temple of Hagia Sophia in Constantinople.
5. What is attributed to the features of Byzantism?
6. Bring realities modern life, which can be considered the legacy of the Middle Ages (institute, symbolism, architectural monument, custom, tradition, clothing, food, drink, spices).
MOSCOW OPEN SOCIAL UNIVERSITY
FINANCIAL AND ECONOMIC FACULTY
ESSAY
Topic: Culture of the Middle Ages
Completed by a 2nd year student:
L.V. Bondareva
Supervisor:
Professor V.P. Semin
MOSCOW 2007
Introduction.
1. Early Middle Ages.
2. High (classical) Middle Ages.
2.1 The emergence of "urban culture".
2.2 Sermons as a layer of folk culture.
3. Late Middle Ages.
Conclusion.
Bibliography.
Introduction.
Culturologists call the Middle Ages a long period in the history of Western Europe between Antiquity and Modern Times. This period covers more than a millennium from the 5th to the 15th centuries.
Within the millennium, it is customary to distinguish at least three periods: the Early Middle Ages, from the beginning of the era to 900 or 1000 years (up to X-XI centuries);
High (Classical) Middle Ages - from the X-XI centuries to about the XIV century;
Late Middle Ages, XIV-XV centuries.
Some authors in the context of the Middle Ages also consider the so-called transition period from the Middle Ages to the New Time (XVI-XVII centuries), however, it seems more reasonable to consider the period of the Reformation and Counter-Reformation as a separate period of history and culture that had a great influence on the further formation of the cultural consciousness of the masses. ...
The folk culture of this era is a new and almost unexplored topic in science. The ideologists of feudal society managed not only to push the people away from the means of fixing their thoughts and moods, but also to deprive researchers of subsequent times of the opportunity to restore the main features of their spiritual life. “The great dumb”, “the great absent”, “people without archives and without faces” - this is how modern historians call the people in the era when direct access to the means of written recording of cultural values was closed for them.
The folk culture of the Middle Ages was not lucky in science. Usually when
talk about it, mention, at most, the remnants of the ancient world and the epic, the remnants of paganism. In those comparatively rare cases, when a modern specialist turns to the folk religiosity of the Middle Ages, he does not find other characteristics for it such as “naive”, “primitive”, “uncouth”, “coarse”, “superficial”, “paralogical”, ”childish ”; it is the religion of the “child-people”, overflowing with superstitions and focused on the fabulous and the fabulous.
The criteria for such value judgments are taken from the "high" religion of the enlightened and it is from their position that consciousness and emotional life commoners, without setting themselves the task of examining it "from the inside", guided by its own logic.
Early Middle Ages.
The early Middle Ages were a time when stormy and very important processes took place in Europe, such as the invasion of the barbarians, which ended with the fall of the Roman Empire. Barbarians settled on the lands of the former empire, assimilated with its population, creating a new community of Western Europe.
At the same time, the new Western Europeans, as a rule, adopted Christianity, which by the end of the existence of Rome became its state religion. Christianity in its various forms supplanted pagan beliefs, and this process only accelerated after the fall of the empire. This is the second most important historical process that determined the face of the early Middle Ages in Western Europe.
The third significant process was the formation on the territory of the former Roman Empire of new state formations, created by the same “barbarians”. Tribal leaders proclaimed themselves kings, dukes, earls, constantly at war with each other and subjugating weaker neighbors. A characteristic feature of life in the early Middle Ages was constant wars, robberies and raids, which significantly slowed down economic and cultural development.
During the early Middle Ages, the ideological positions of the feudal lords and peasants had not yet taken shape and the peasantry, which was just emerging as a special class of society, in terms of world outlook was dissolved in broader and more indefinite strata.
The main mass of the population of Europe at that time was rural residents, whose lifestyle was completely subordinated to routine, and whose horizons were extremely limited. Conservatism is an essential feature of this environment.
The peasantry and his life are almost not at all reflected in the social picture of the world, as it was thought at that time, and this fact in itself is very symptomatic. A society that is agrarian in nature, built on the exploitation and subjugation of broad strata of the rural population, as it were, allowed itself to ideologically ignore its own majority.
The paradox: common people, first of all - the peasantry, despised and ignored by the ruling class, at the same time, in a certain sense, dominated the spiritual life of the early Middle Ages. Rural life, with its unhurried regularity and periodic change of production seasons, was the main regulator of the social rhythm of society (p. 63)
2. High (classical) Middle Ages.
During the classical, or high Middle Ages, Western Europe began to overcome difficulties and revive. Since the 10th century, state structures have been enlarged, which made it possible to collect more numerous armies and, to some extent, stop raids and plunder. Missionaries carried Christianity to the countries of Scandinavia, Poland, Bohemia, Hungary, so that these states also entered the orbit of Western culture.
The onset of relative stability provided the opportunity for a rapid rise in cities and economies. Life began to change for the better, the cities flourished with their own culture and spiritual life. An important role in this was played by the same church, which also developed, improved its teaching and organization.
On the basis of the artistic traditions of Ancient Rome and the former barbarian tribes, Romanesque and later brilliant Gothic art arose, and not only architecture and literature, but also other types of art - painting, theater, music, sculpture - were developed ... It was during this era that masterpieces were created. literature "Song of Roland", "Romance of the Rose".
The so-called knightly literature arises and develops. One of the most famous works is the greatest monument of the French folk heroic epic, The Song of Roland. In the XII century. chivalric romances appear. Among the most popular was the poetic novel about the British King Arthur.
An important monument of Germanic folk literature of the XII-XIII centuries is the "Song of the Nibelungs", which tells about the invasion of the Huns into the Kingdom of Burgundy at the beginning of the 5th century. The Song of the Nibelungs is based on ancient Germanic legends.
A significant phenomenon in French literature in the XII-XIII centuries was the vagantes and their poetry. Vagants (from Lat. Vagantes - wandering) were called wandering poets. A feature of their work was the constant criticism of the Catholic Church and the clergy for greed, hypocrisy and ignorance. The Church, in turn, persecuted the Vagants.
The most important monument of English literature of the 13th century is the famous "Ballads of Robin Hood", which to this day remains one of the most famous heroes of world literature.
2.1 The emergence of "urban culture".
During this period, the so-called "urban literature" developed rapidly, which was characterized by a realistic depiction of the urban everyday life of various strata of the urban population, as well as the appearance of satirical works. Representatives of urban literature in Italy were Cecco Angiolieri, Guido Orlandi (late 13th century).
The development of urban literature testified to a new phenomenon in the cultural life of Western European society - urban culture, which played a very important role in the formation of Western civilization as a whole. The essence of urban culture was reduced to the constant strengthening of secular elements in all spheres of human existence.
Urban culture originated in France in the 11th-12th centuries. During this period, she was represented, in particular, by the work of "jugglers" who performed in city squares as actors, acrobats, trainers, musicians and singers. They performed at fairs, folk festivals, weddings, christenings, etc. and were very popular among the people.
From about the middle of the 12th century, theatrical performances moved from under the church vaults to the square, and the performances were no longer performed in Latin, but in French. The actors are no longer the clergyman, but the townspeople, the plots of the plays become more and more secular, until they turn into scenes from everyday city life, often flavored with a good portion of satire. At the same time, theatrical art was developing in England.
A new and extremely important phenomenon, testifying to the deepening of the development of urban culture, was the creation of non-church schools in cities - these were private schools that did not depend materially on the church. The teachers of these schools lived off the fees charged to the students, and anyone who could afford to pay the tuition could teach their children. Since that time, there has been a rapid spread of literacy among the urban population.
2.2 Sermons as a layer of folk culture.
European medieval society was very religious and the power of the clergy over the minds was extremely great. The teaching of the church was the starting point of all thinking, all sciences - jurisprudence, natural science, philosophy, logic - everything was brought into line with Christianity. The clergy was the only educated class, and it was the church that for a long time determined the policy in the field of education. The entire cultural life of European society during this period was largely determined by Christianity.
An important layer in the formation of folk culture during the classical Middle Ages is preaching.
The bulk of society remained illiterate. In order for the thoughts of the social and spiritual elite to become the dominant thoughts of all parishioners, they had to be “translated” into a language accessible to all people. This is what the preachers did. Parish priests, monks, missionaries had to explain to the people the basic tenets of theology, instill the principles of Christian behavior and eradicate the wrong way of thinking.
The sermon assumed as its listener any person - literate and illiterate, noble and commoner, city dweller and peasant, rich and poor.
The most famous preachers structured their sermons in such a way as to keep the attention of the public for a long time and to convey to them the ideas of church doctrine in the form of simple examples.
Some have used the so-called "examples" (exempla) - short stories written in the form of parables on everyday topics.
These “examples” are one of the earliest literary genres and are of particular interest for a more complete understanding of the world outlook of ordinary believers. “Example” was one of the most effective means of didactic influence on parishioners.
In these "incidents from life" one can see the original world of medieval man, with his ideas about the saints and evil spirits as real participants Everyday life person.
However, the most famous preachers, such as Berthold of Regenburg (XIII century), did not use the "Examples" in their sermons, building them mainly on the biblical texts. This preacher built his sermons in the form of dialogues, addressed calls and utterances to a certain part of the audience or professional categories. He made wide use of the method of enumeration, riddles and other techniques that made his sermons little performances. (, p. 265)
Church ministers, as a rule, did not introduce any original ideas and statements into their sermons; this was not expected of them and the parishioners would not be able to appreciate it. The audience received satisfaction just from listening to things familiar and familiar.
3. Late Middle Ages.
The late Middle Ages continued the processes of the formation of European culture, which began in the period of the classics. However, their course was far from smooth. In the XIV-XV centuries, Western Europe repeatedly experienced a great famine. Numerous epidemics, especially plague, have brought innumerable human casualties. The development of culture was greatly slowed down by the Hundred Years War.
During these periods, uncertainty and fear dominated the masses. The economic upsurge gives way to long periods of decline and stagnation. Among the masses, complexes of fear of death and existence beyond the grave intensified, fears of evil spirits intensified.
At the end of the Middle Ages, in the minds of the common people, Satan is transformed from, in general, not a terrible and sometimes ridiculous trait into an omnipotent ruler of dark forces, who at the end of earthly history will act as the Antichrist.
Another cause of fear is hunger, as a result of low yields and several years of droughts.
The sources of fear are best highlighted in the prayer of a peasant of that time: "Deliver us, Lord, from plague, hunger and war." (, p. 330)
The dominance of oral culture has powerfully contributed to the proliferation of superstitions, fears and collective panic.
However, in the end, the cities were reborn, people who survived the pestilence and war were able to arrange their lives better than in previous eras. Conditions arose for a new upsurge in spiritual life, science, philosophy, art. This rise inevitably led to the so-called Renaissance or Renaissance.
Conclusion.
So. now it is possible to draw a conclusion on my essay which is called "Culture of the Middle Ages". It can be seen from the work that since in the Middle Ages a complex of ideas about the world, beliefs, mental attitudes and a system of behavior, which could conditionally be called “folk culture” or “folk religiosity,” in one way or another, was the property of all members of society (p. 356 ).
The thinking of the Middle Ages was predominantly theological.
The medieval church, wary and suspicious of the customs, faith and religious practice of the common people, was influenced by them. As an example, one can cite the sanctioning of the cult of saints by the church in its popular interpretation.
The magical approach to nature extended to Christian rituals, and belief in miracles was widespread.
The entire cultural life of European society during this period was largely determined by Christianity.
European medieval society was very religious and the power of the clergy over the minds was extremely great. The teaching of the church was the starting point of all thinking, all sciences - jurisprudence, natural science, philosophy, logic - everything was brought into line with Christianity. The higher clergy were the only educated class, but the medieval European, including the upper strata of society, was illiterate. The literacy rate of even priests in parishes was appallingly low. Only by the end of the 15th century did the church realize the need to have an educated cadre and began to open theological seminaries.
Mass mediaeval culture is a bookless culture, “dogutenberg”. She relied not on the printed word, but on oral sermons and exhortations. It existed through the consciousness of an illiterate person. It was a culture of prayers, fairy tales, myths and magic spells. Sermons, representing a significant layer of medieval culture, have become a "translation" of the thoughts of the social and spiritual elite into a language accessible to all people. Parish priests, monks, missionaries had to explain to the people the basic tenets of theology, instill the principles of Christian behavior and eradicate the wrong way of thinking. Special literature was created that popularly set out the foundations of Christian teaching, giving the flock models to follow. This literature was mainly intended for priests to use in their daily activities.
Medieval Examination >> Culture and Art
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