State and non-state political institutions. The state as the main political institution Formation of political institutions
In modern science under institute a complex of norms, rules that determine and regulate human activity is understood. Classical in this regard is the definition given by the Nobel laureate D. North: "Institutions are the 'rules of the game' in society, or, more formally, human-created limiting frameworks that organize relationships between people."
Political institutions emerge as the differentiation of political power develops as relatively autonomous normative orders regulating individual segments of increasingly complex political power relations. For example, the institution of parliamentarism is a normative order that determines the nature of interactions between people regarding the creation of a representative body of state power and the performance of lawmaking and representative functions by it. This is not a building where parliamentarians sit, and not even specific deputies themselves elected for a certain term, but stable relations that arise as a result of normative regulation.
Should demarcate institutions as complexes of regulatory restrictions, and organization as a group of people pursuing certain goals, making decisions and creating their own rules to optimize the solution of the assigned tasks. For example, when we talk about the institution of political parties, we mean the normative order that has developed in society, which determines the rules for the creation of political parties, the main forms and principles of their activity. When we talk about a political party as an organization, we mean specific associations of citizens pursuing political goals and solving specific problems.
Institutions and organizations have a number of common features, in particular, both of them structure relations between people by establishing certain norms and rules. However, there is also a serious difference between them: if institutions are the rules of the game, then organizations are associations of people who are limited in their actions by these rules. “The concept of“ organization, ”writes D. North,“ includes political
bodies and institutions (political parties, Senate, city council, control department)<...>An organization is a group of people united by the desire to achieve a goal together ”(for more on organizations in politics, see section IV).
A political institution is a stable normative order that regulates the interaction of people in a certain segment of relations of political power in society. Institutional education is sustained not only by norms, but also by sanctions that prevent deviations from normative models of behavior, as well as the ability of people to assimilate and adopt established norms and rules. Thanks to this, political institutions acquire objectivity, they are reproduced independently of the will and desires of individual individuals.
The content of political institutions is determined by two types of norms: formal, those. established by special legal acts, and informal that arose as a result of the natural definition of behavioral models emerging in the political practice of interactions. Politics is an area where formal rules and regulations are unusually strong. This is primarily due to the special importance of political institutions in society, the place they occupy in the system of power relations in the management of public affairs. Currently, practically in all countries there are legal acts that determine the basic principles of the functioning of political institutions.
However, the normative space of any political institution is made up not only of norms that have been formally enshrined in any official documents. There are a number of conventions, rules of interpersonal communication, which are not enshrined in laws, but have a strong impact on real relations between participants in political interactions. In reality, a situation of competition between formal and informal rules often becomes, when, knowing about formal rules, individuals nevertheless consider more effective informal, tested by experience, which give certain advantages in solving specific problems.
In this regard, scientists consider it necessary not to investigate the content of political institutions on the basis of exclusively formal, official norms, but to include informal rules into the orbit of their research, especially since the latter often deform the officially declared normative institutional order. This approach found its expression in the methodology of neoinstitutionalism, which focuses on taking into account the entire set of normative constraints.
In modern space political power two types of political institutions can be distinguished:
- 1) institutions of state power and public administration (for more details about the state as a complex institutional formation, see paragraph 4.2);
- 2) non-state political institutions that regulate the processes of civic responsibility and self-organization, expression and protection of group interests, participation of citizens in the political life of society, including ways of their influence on the adoption of state decisions.
If the emergence of the state coincided with the natural process of institutionalization of political power, the emergence of a normative order that enshrines the right of a certain status group to manage public affairs, then the second type of institutions was constituted in the process of citizens' struggle for the right to participate in political decision-making.
Among the political institutions of the second type, a special place is occupied by institute of citizenship, regulating the position of an ordinary person in the system of political power relations by determining the mutual obligations of the state and the citizen in relation to each other. The normative procedure of this institution determines the rights and obligations of a citizen, the procedure for acquiring citizenship, the conditions for its loss, the citizenship of children when the parents' citizenship changes, etc. This institution introduces orderliness in relations between the citizen and the state, creates barriers to state arbitrariness, the use of illegal methods of power by the ruling group. Moreover, obtaining citizenship allows a person to count on the protection) "of his constitutional rights from the state.
Human Rights Institute, on the contrary, it defines the zones of individual freedom from state interference, where he can make independent decisions, act at his own discretion. Within the framework of this institution, the political rights of the individual are also regulated, associated with participation in public and political life, organized pressure on government structures, participation in the formation of state bodies.
Institute of Universal Suffrage arises in modern societies as a result of the stubborn struggle of the masses for the right to influence the personal composition of government officials who manage public affairs. This institution ensures the establishment of a normative procedure that guarantees every citizen who has reached a certain age, the right to participate in elections to legislative bodies of various levels and presidential elections in those countries where this is provided for by the constitution, and also regulates the procedure for their electoral order, see paragraph 4.5).
Institute of Political Parties ensures the orderliness of relations developing in the course of the creation of political organizations, and regulates the order of interactions between parties, as well as between parties and other subjects of politics. Thanks to this institution, general ideas about what a political party is, how it should act, and how it differs from other organizations and associations are formed in society. The behavior of party activists and rank-and-file members begins to be built on the basis of precisely these ideas, which form the normative space of a given political institution (for more details, see Chapter 11).
Institute of Public Organizations and Associations is a normative order that defines the rules for the creation of structures by citizens that allow them to jointly express and defend their interests. This institutional formation, on the one hand, makes it possible to streamline the processes of self-organization of citizens, and on the other hand, to prevent the emergence of organizations that can have a destructive effect on the system of political power relations.
Institute for representation of interests forms the order of interaction of interest groups with the state. It establishes the norms and rules for articulating group interests into power structures, ways of reconciling private interests, the interests of business structures with the interests expressed by the state (for more details, see Chapter 10).
In each country, the combination of these institutions, as well as their specific normative content, have their own national characteristics, conditioned by the historical conditions of political development and the specifics of the socio-cultural environment. But, despite the national specifics, these political institutions perform an important socially significant function. They structure the field of political power relations, give political interactions a form that is understandable for members of society, and reduce the possibility of destructive conflicts that can destabilize and even destroy the political system.
- 2 North D. Institutions, Institutional Changes and the Functioning of the Economy), Moscow: Nachala, 1997, p. 17.
- North D. Institutions, Institutional Change and Economic Performance, pp. nineteen.
- March J., Olsen J. The New Institutionalism. Organizational Factors in Political life // American Political Science Review, 1984. Vol. 78. No 3.P. 734-749.
Quite often, the student needs to get a clear idea of what a political institution is. This topic is related to the topic "Institutions". Actually they are: social, legal, political. On the their training courses By the way, we analyze in detail not only these types, but the essence of the concept. So I recommend it.
Concept, typology and features of political institutions
A political institution is a form of organizing the activities of people associated with the functioning of public authorities and administration. These include:
- state,
- government institutions (parliament, president, municipalities, city halls, political parties, etc.);
- civil society, including social organizations and movements.
These subjects of the political system were studied by the classics - thinkers T. Hobbes, J. Locke, C. Montesquieu, researchers of the XX century. - the famous lawyer M. Oriu, sociologist T. Lukman, political scientist B. Rothstein, philosopher A. Panarin, etc.
Since ancient times, people have fought for the possession of material and non-material benefits. With the transition to agriculture, a stratification occurred in the tribes: farmers, cattle breeders and warriors, priests emerged directly. The latter began to dominate the farmers, using physical strength and moral superiority; began to dominate the first community-states. The mechanism gradually changed, the administrative apparatus was built.
Consequently, institutionalization took shape in antiquity along with the separation of other social formations: property, family, religion.
Its key functions:
- consolidation of different social strata with different interests, mitigation of their differences;
- representation and satisfaction of the needs of the aggregate strata of the population;
- distribution of material goods, regulation of labor and production;
- preservation of spiritual achievements;
- creating conditions for the further evolution of the system of government.
The above class of formations is characterized by the presence of:
- members - participants;
- powers;
- resources allowing to realize their mission;
- roles and norms.
The state as a political institution
The state is the main political institution. This is the definition given by most scientists. The phenomenon is a specific entity that, with the help of leadership and coercion in the person of the government, controls the permanent population in a specific territory and contacts with other countries.
The state has broad powers and relies on the following categories of resources:
- economic (land, minerals, production facilities, money, etc.);
- social (education, medicine, social security);
- cultural and informational (mass media, opinion of residents, traditions);
- security forces (army, police, courts);
- legal (Constitution, codes, etc.).
There are different theories of its origin, they understand its roles in different ways: from the coordinator of legal relations in the contractual theory to the conqueror in the violent concept. In fact, its purpose is diverse, depending on the assigned responsibilities.
Most important:
- protective function - protection of the rights and freedoms of the individual, ensuring security, stability;
- economic - streamlining the processes taking place in the national economy for a fair sharing of benefits;
- legal - the establishment and implementation of legal regulations;
- social - maintaining favorable conditions for the formation and development of individuals;
- ecological and cultural - preserving nature and the treasures of civilization,
Norms are the rules of conduct for participants in social and political life. In the XVIII century. a classical model of coexistence of legislative, executive and judicial instances was formed.
There were views about the types of government (monarchy or republic), structure (unitary or federation) and political regime (rule of the people, totalitarianism, etc.).
The modern ideal is a democratic legal republic. In it, all people directly or indirectly manage national affairs, their rights are recognized as a fundamental value, and actions are subject exclusively to the norms of law. Russia is also a democratic federal state.
Government bodies and parties
Any public authority belongs to the class of the analyzed institutions. Its composition and competences are established by the ruler, the supreme collegial institutions.
A striking example is the Ministry of Internal Affairs of the Russian Federation. Its work is the corresponding minister, appointed by the President of Russia. In turn, the minister selects the contingent of the department from citizens of the Russian Federation who meet educational and qualification requirements.
The duties of the Ministry of Internal Affairs are charged with:
- development of a strategy in the field of internal affairs;
- protection of the rights and freedoms of individuals, in particular the maintenance of law and order;
- prevention, disclosure and suppression of crimes;
- protection of property, institutions.
Funds from the budget are used as financial sources. The main guidelines regarding its functioning are contained in the relevant legislation. In general, the department acts as an intermediary between the government and the population.
Political parties are a union of citizens seeking to send their members to administrative structures and thus guarantee benefits for certain groups.
Such unions appeared in the 19th century, when universal suffrage was consolidated. Their classification is complex. In the modern world, varieties are more often distinguished by:
- the degree of participation in government (pro-government, opposition);
- the nature of ideology (left - socialist; right - nationalist; centrist - liberal, conservative).
Today, there are almost no non-party countries left on the planet. Multiparty systems are especially popular. During elections, their delegates, with popular support, join the ranks of influential persons and adjust policies. In addition, they:
- mobilize the masses to solve large-scale urgent problems;
- develop the views of voters;
- contribute to the socialization of individuals;
- form the team elite.
They can include all adult citizens, and reserves are formed through membership fees, donations, private funding, business. Their support is the trust of the electorate. Competencies are established by laws and by-laws. These groups, as a regulator of public relations, bind together the ruling circles and the people.
Civil society
Social science defines as self-government of the inhabitants of the country, free from government interference. This is cooperation of fellow citizens, in which the private life of a person is protected, the abuse of the state and parties is restrained. It is formed by public organizations, blocs, informal communities - diasporas, religious communities.
Public organizations are made up of citizens and stateless persons who voluntarily unite to achieve common goals.
Can:
- create business units and divisions;
- to establish a media outlet, to disseminate information about yourself;
- to conduct training camps, meetings;
- finance charitable, non-profit projects;
- to interact with official bodies, institutions.
These associations are independent representatives of society. On their basis, social movements can arise - collective actions aimed at eliminating acute urgent difficulties. Their resource is the possibilities of the public, and the higher the level of its well-being, the more influential the associations under consideration, the stronger the civil society. In the future, his authority will only grow.
The essence of political institutions
Definition 1
Political institutions represent a system of institutions that organize and maintain the process of exercising political power. Political institutions ensure the establishment of political power, its maintenance, the exchange of activities between the government and various other spheres of political life, the transfer of political information to society and other important functions for society.
Traditionally, the main political institutions are the state, public organizations (movements), and political parties.
The most common functions of the main political institutions
These include:
- consolidation of social groups and society as a whole for the realization of their interests
- the development of political programs that express the aspirations of social groups, as well as the organization of their implementation
- regulation and ordering of the actions of communities in accordance with the adopted political programs
- integration of various social groups
- development and protection of a system of social values and relations that correspond to the interests of society
- ensuring the optimal focus and dynamic development of the political process to realize the advantages and priorities of the relevant social forces.
The main features of political institutions
Political institutions are formed mainly on the basis of certain non-institutionalized groups or communities. A significant difference between formal political institutions and previous organizations can be called the presence of a paid administrative apparatus operating on a permanent basis. As a subject of politics, each political institution realizes its activity through the activities of leaders of various levels, leaders, rank-and-file members, etc. Political institutions interact with the social environment in order to satisfy specific and, at the same time, continuously changing group and individual social political interests.
Of course, in their totality, political institutions play the most significant role in the political process, however, the primary political subject is always a person, a separate individual. It should be noted that in domestic practice, an independent person has not always been recognized as a free and independent subject of politics. For a very long time, the role of subjects of political action was assigned to the masses, political associations and communities. Each individual taken separately could take part in political life mainly as a member of official structures with strict regulation of political functions.
In fact, the needs of each person, his goals and value orientations are a “policy measure”, as well as the driving principle of the socio-political activity of various social groups, as well as institutions and organizations that express their interests.
The status of a subject of politics cannot exist as initially immanent to one or another individual or social group. In other words, political qualities are not innate. Each individual is a potential subject of politics, however, not everyone becomes such a real person. In order for the formation of the individual as a political subject to take place, he must find his existence and essence in politics. In other words, a person needs to master his political experience in practice (realizing himself as a subject of politics), develop his own position in the political process, and also consciously determine his attitude to the world of politics and the degree of his participation in it.
An individual's realization of his political essence is very closely interconnected with his individual characteristics. It is refracted through the structure of his personality, in which psychological, social, spiritual and biological substructures can be distinguished as the main components.
Political institutions carry out implementation, the need for which is determined by the fact that resources, values and other socially significant objects available to individuals, social groups are never unlimited, socially determined limits should be established to the natural desire to expand the sphere of their possession. Resources of this kind are not only material in nature; these also include security, access to information, status, prestige, power. In the absence of such limits, social interactions cannot be ordered, and disputes and conflicts will inevitably arise, fraught with disintegration of social systems, anarchy. Securing the limits requires the establishment of power relations in society, the power of some over others. The authorities should be able to determine those limits for the development of disputes and conflicts, upon reaching which it is necessary to make an authoritative decision, which should be perceived by all as mandatory.
If you define power as the ability of one subject to control acts of behavior, the actions of another subject, then, firstly, political power extends to society as a whole, and secondly, only political power is recognized the right to apply all types of sanctions, including physical coercion, deprivation of property, freedom and even life. However, the violence from the political authorities must be legitimate, that is, recognized and accepted (explicitly or implicitly) by the majority of members of society, and it is precisely in this that political power "differs from a gang of robbers." The voice of violence does not have legitimacy, and it is obeyed not because the authority of the person using violence is recognized, but due to the lack of alternatives to behavior.
The state as a political institution
The state as a political institution is an institutionalized political power. as the basis of political power can be based on tradition, on the exclusive, recognized by the majority authority ("charisma") of the ruler and on rational choice ( M. Weber). Traditional authority relies on the general conviction of the inviolability and sanctity of traditions established since ancient times, in the natural legitimacy of the authorities, their inherent advantages and privileges. Charismatic power is based on the prevailing belief in greatness, holiness, the superiority of one person over all, his heroism, the basis of such power is manifested in the projection onto its bearer of the image of the "father of the nation" devotion. Rational power relies on the dominant belief in the legality of the established order, recognition by the majority of the validity of the right of state bodies to exercise power.
Political power can be formed in different ways and distributed in different ways, be either monolithic or diffuse. The traditional typology of forms of government reflected the methods of distribution of power: autocracy (domination of a sole ruler), oligarchy(domination of a privileged few) and democracy(People power).
Aristotle noted the constantly emerging phenomena of the degeneration of autocracy in tyranny(the rule of the tyrant), the oligarchy - in plutocracy(domination of criminals) and democracy - in ochlocracy(crowd dominance). This transformation is based on a significant change in the ratio of law and arbitrariness in this form of government. The transition from autocracy to tyranny is embodied in the replacement of the legitimate monarch (whose power is based on the right of inheritance, and the rule itself is associated with following written laws or unwritten norms, traditions) with a tyrant who bases his rule on arbitrary violence, not bound by any rules ... Oligarchs turn into plutocrats, using state power for criminal enrichment. Ochlocracy is the rule of the majority, not bound by law, based on the violence of the crowd, led by a demagogue.
In the XX century, a special form of political government appeared - totalitarian state(Hitlerism in Germany, Stalinism in the USSR, Pol Pot regime in Cambodia, etc.). The principal characteristic of a totalitarian state is not just an arbitrary violation of laws by the dominant force, but the replacement of legal regulation with total terror. Compliance with laws is the essence of non-tyrannical rule. Lawlessness is the essence of tyranny. Terror is the essence of totalitarian domination. Six features of the totalitarian state are noted: a single state ideology; one-party system; the use of terror; complete control over the media; uncontrolled disposal of weapons; economic management.
In modern times, the concept has received recognition and development. . It is based on the idea of subordination of any forms of state activity to law, above all to the constitution, the main purpose of which in a democratic society is to serve as a decisive limiter of state power in the name of preserving the most important rights and freedoms of citizens, to be the guarantor of self-development and self-organization of the basic institutions of civil society. By limiting state power to law, the constitution thereby protects the civil and political rights of citizens proclaimed in it, implements the central function of law as incarnations and measures of being of freedom. Law without freedom is a legal fiction, a positive sanction of arbitrariness. Freedom without law is a war of all against all, the disintegration of society and the state.
To express and represent the generally significant interests of society, social groups and individuals create political institutions. One of the founders of the theory of institutions, the French jurist M. Oriou, believed that "institutions are a definite idea, implemented in a concrete social environment." A political institution consists of a structure (organization) and collective representations, beliefs (or general idea) that serve these structures (organizations). Among political institutions, one can single out the state and its structures, as well as the electoral system, political parties, public opinion, the media, pressure groups, etc. The emergence of political institutions meant the emergence of such needs that could not be met by individual resources.
The state as an institution of the political system
The state is the most important institution of the political system. The significance of the state is determined by the maximum concentration in its hands of power and resources that allow it to effectively and decisively influence social change. Since its inception, the state has been interpreted ambiguously in the history of political thought, since at various stages of the history of mankind, one or another of its functions and properties came to the fore.
So, Aristotle considered the state the personification of reason, justice, beauty and the common good. In his opinion, it is a reflection of the generic essence of man as a "political animal" striving for "cohabitation." “A person who has found his completion in the state,” noted Aristotle, “is the most perfect of creations, on the contrary, a person who lives outside of law and law occupies a miserable place in the world.”
The English thinker T. Hobbes, on the contrary, compared the state with the Leviathan - a monster described in the Bible: “Flamers come out of its mouth, fiery sparks jump out. Smoke comes out of his nostrils, as from a boiling pot or cauldron. His breath ignites the coals, and a flame comes out of his mouth. Power dwells on his neck, and terror runs before him ... "
The nature and social purpose of the state in political science is understood ambiguously.
Theocratic theory views the state as a divine providence, based on the thesis that "all power is from God." This theory was based on real facts: the first states had religious forms (the rule of priests), the divine right gave authority to state power, and the decisions of the state - binding.
The patriarchal concept interprets the state as a large family in which the relationship between the monarch and his subjects is identified with the relationship between the father and family members. The state, according to this concept, arises as a result of the union of clans into tribes, tribes in a community, a state. The monarch must take care of his subjects, and those, in turn, must obey the ruler.
In the XVII-XVIII centuries. formed a contractual theory of the origin of the state. According to her, the state was understood as a social contract, according to which people agreed to create a state in order to securely ensure their natural rights, freedom, protection of personality and property. According to the French thinker D. Diderot (1713-1784), “people quickly realized that if they continued to use their freedom, their independence and indulge in their passions uncontrollably, then the position of each individual person would become more unhappy than if he lived separately ; they realized that each person needs to sacrifice a part of their natural independence and submit to a will that would represent the will of the whole society and would, so to speak, the common center and point of unity of all their wills and all their forces. This is the origin of sovereigns. "
Marxist theory (XIX century) explains the origin of the state by the split of society into antagonistic classes due to the division of labor and the emergence of private property.
The economically ruling class creates the state to subjugate the poor. “The state,” V.I. Lenin, - is the organ of class rule, the organ of oppression of one class by another, is the creation of "order", which legitimizes and strengthens this oppression, tempering the clash of classes. "
According to supporters of the theory of violence, the state is the result of direct political action - internal or external violence, conquest. The consequence of the victory of the majority over a minority or a stronger tribe over a weaker one is the establishment of the state by the victor.
It becomes the governing body of the vanquished. As a result of the conquest, not only the state arises, but also the division of society into classes, private property.
In the theories considered, one of the aspects of the social essence of the state is noted: it either serves the interests of society and the individual, or acts as a means of suppressing the have-nots by the possessing classes. At certain stages of historical development, the class nature of the state prevailed, but its general social purpose was always decisive.
If parties and movements express group needs, then the state is called upon to represent the general interest.
The state is the most important factor in the socio-economic and spiritual development of society, the integration of various groups around generally recognized goals. In this regard, the state can be defined as a special form of organization of political power in society, which has sovereignty and manages society on the basis of law with the help of a special mechanism (apparatus).
The state performs a number of functions that distinguish it from other political institutions. Traditionally, the functions of the state are subdivided into internal and external according to the areas of implementation of generally significant goals. Internal functions include economic, social, organizational, legal, political, educational, cultural and educational, etc.
The economic function of the state is expressed in the organization, coordination, regulation of economic processes with the help of tax and credit policies, creating incentives for economic growth or the implementation of sanctions for economic crimes.
The social function is to meet the needs of people for work, housing, maintaining health; provision of social guarantees for the elderly, disabled, unemployed, youth; life insurance, property, health insurance.
The legal function includes the maintenance of law and order, the establishment of legal norms that regulate public relations and the behavior of citizens, the protection of the social system from the destructive actions of extremists. Protection of legal norms is carried out by special law enforcement agencies of the state (court, prosecutor's office, etc.).
One of the main ones is the political function, which consists in ensuring political stability, exercising power, developing a political course that meets the needs and aspirations of the general population or the need to maintain the political domination of the owner-class.
The educational function is associated with the provision of conditions for obtaining public and free general and secondary vocational education, the development of science.
The cultural and educational function is aimed at creating conditions for meeting the cultural needs of the population, familiarizing them with the achievements of world artistic culture, at creating opportunities for self-realization in creativity.
Among the external functions, one can single out the implementation of mutually beneficial cooperation in the economic, social, technological, cultural, trade spheres with other countries and the country's defense.
The state is a special form of organization of political power, which has a certain structure. The organization, structure and implementation of state power reflects the concept of "form of state".
The form of the state as a set of external features of the state includes three elements: the form of government, the form of state structure, and the political regime.
The form of government is understood as the way of organizing the supreme state power, its bodies, the degree of participation of the population in their formation. Monarchies and republics are distinguished depending on who and how exercises state power, how state bodies are arranged, organized and operate.
Monarchies are absolute and constitutional (limited). Absolute monarchy is a form of government in which state power is solely exercised by the monarch. Constitutional monarchy assumes that the power of the monarch is limited to some representative body acting on the basis of the constitution.
A presidential republic is characterized by a rigid separation of legislative and executive powers. The president, being the head of state, at the same time heads the executive branch, is not responsible to parliament, since he is elected in general elections. The government is appointed by the president and is accountable to him. The president does not have the right to dissolve parliament. He has a suspensive veto on parliamentary bills, which parliament can override with an absolute majority (2/3) on a repeat vote.
In parliamentary republics, the relationship between the legislative and executive branches of government is based on the principle of cooperation.
The president in a parliamentary republic is the head of state, but executive power is concentrated in the government headed by the prime minister. The government is formed by the party or coalition of parties with the majority of seats in parliament. It is responsible to parliament.
The presidential-parliamentary republic, which exists in France, Austria, Ireland, Poland, Portugal, Bulgaria and some other countries, is distinguished by the double responsibility of the government - to the president and to parliament. This form of government combines strong presidential power with effective parliamentary oversight of government. On the one hand, the president is endowed with a wide range of powers: he is the head of state, the supreme commander in chief, has a suspensive veto on parliamentary decisions, appoints the prime minister, has the right to dissolve parliament and call new elections, single-handedly impose a state of emergency, etc., but, on the other hand, the parliament has the ability to control the activities of the prime minister and the government through the approval of the country's budget, passing a resolution of censure (vote of no confidence) in them.
The most common form of government is the unitary state. In a unitary state, there are representative, executive and judicial bodies common to the whole country, the powers of which extend to its entire territory. There is a unified system of legislation, a unified legal system, a unified monetary system and a unified citizenship. All administrative-territorial units (regions, districts, departments, provinces) have the same legal status and do not have any political independence (i.e., they do not have their own legislative, foreign policy bodies), but are independent in the economic, socio-cultural spheres.
A federal state is a voluntary union of several previously independent state entities into a single union state. Federations are currently 20 countries of the world: Australia, Austria, Argentina, Belgium, Brazil, Venezuela, India, Canada, etc. The territory of the federation is formed by the territories of its subjects (states, cantons, republics, etc.). The internal boundaries of the federation can be changed only with the consent of its subjects.
The confederate state, or confederation, is a rare form of organizing a political community. In fact, a confederation is not, in the strict sense of the word, a state. In practice, a confederation is usually a union of several independent states that have united to pursue a joint policy for specific purposes (for example, for joint defense, solving economic, energy, transport problems, etc.). To implement a coordinated policy, the confederation states create common governing bodies. The decisions of these bodies have no direct effect, but come into force only after their approval by the central authorities of each of the states. The confederation does not have a single supreme legislative body, a single citizenship, and the member countries of the confederation fully carry out international activities, they can also voluntarily leave the confederation and terminate the confederation treaty.
Let us note the tendencies in the development of statehood in Russia.
Along with the legal, police, social types of statehood in political science, the Soviet type is distinguished. The Soviet state was formed in specific historical conditions and on the basis of certain theoretical concepts. It was created as the complete opposite of the bourgeois, legal state. They rejected such principles of the rule of law as the separation of powers into legislative, executive, judicial; the rule of law over power; civil society control over the authorities, etc.
According to the form of government, the Soviet state was a republic. However, its peculiarity consisted in the unification of the legislative and executive branches of power in the Soviets. At the same time, the executive committees of the Soviets concentrated in their hands most of the powers of power and, in fact, were outside the control of both legislators and society. All important issues were decided not by the elected representatives of the people, but by the apparatus of the Council.
The modern Russian state is transitional in its type: it bears the imprint of the features of Soviet statehood (the desire to control various aspects of the life of the individual and society, to act as the main manager of funds; the nomenclature principle of selecting part of the leading personnel, etc.). However, democratic principles are also manifested in his activities: free elections on an alternative basis as a way to form the supreme state power, political pluralism, separation of powers, etc.
The creation of a legal, social state in Russia is certainly not a matter of several years, it will take a lot of time. Movement towards this goal will largely depend on the solution of a number of priority problems. Above all, a strong state power is needed. Focusing on the division of functions between the legislative, executive and judicial branches of government, it is important to establish their effective and much-needed cooperation in their work in order to finally eliminate the ground for their confrontation. A certain weakness of the federal government must also be overcome, which is felt in solving a number of urgent problems arising in the conditions of the formation of market relations and emerging hotbeds of social tension.
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