Logical thinking is the development of logic. Examination the specifics of logic as a science The emergence of the term "logic"
Theoretical question:
TOPIC: “The subject of logic. The specifics of logic and its place among others
sciences studying thinking ".
PLAN
Plan .............................. ................... ........... .............................. ........ one
Introduction .............................. ................... ........... .............................. 2
1. The subject of logic as a science. ……………………… ...................... 3
2. Specificity of logic as a science ………………… .... ………… ...... 9
3. The place of logic among other sciences that study thinking ... 11
Conclusion.................... ............................. . .............................. ........ thirteen
List of used literature .................... ........................... 14
Exercises …………………………………………………… .... 15
INTRODUCTION
In the system of the humanities logic belongs to a special place, its importance cannot be overestimated. Logic helps to prove true restrictions and refute false ones, it teaches us to think clearly, concisely, correctly, it is the observance of its rules that protects us from erroneous conclusions. In fact, logic was created by Aristotle as a science that makes it possible to distinguish between correct definitions and inferences from incorrect ones, and thereby reveal errors in the reasoning and public speeches of orators. At present, interest in logic is caused by many circumstances, and first of all by a significant expansion of the sphere of logical knowledge, the specific area of application of which is law.
High requirements for lawmaking, law enforcement practice and legal theory also apply to the professional thinking of a lawyer and are relevant in a modern legal society. At the same time, being logically prepared, the lawyer will be able to accurately and reasonably build his arguments, identify inconsistencies in the testimony of victims, witnesses, suspects, in written sources. Logic will help him convincingly refute the erroneous arguments of his opponents, correctly draw up a work plan, official documents, build investigative versions, etc.
Obviously, the study of logic by a lawyer cannot replace special legal knowledge. However, it helps every future lawyer to become a good specialist in his field. No wonder the famous Russian lawyer A.F. Koni believed that an educated lawyer should be a person in whom general education is ahead of special education. And in the system of general education, one of the leading places belongs to formal-logical training. That is why, in the opinion of the outstanding Russian teacher K.D. Ushinsky, logic should be on the threshold of all sciences. At the same time, knowledge of the rules and laws of logic is not the ultimate goal of studying it. The ultimate goal of studying logic is the ability to apply its rules and laws in the process of thinking.
1. The subject of logic as a science.
Term "LOGICS" comes from the ancient Greek word??????
- "the science of reasoning", "the art of reasoning" - from?????
- which means "thought", "mind", "word", "speech", "reasoning", "regularity", and is currently used in three basic meanings. First, to designate any objective regularity in the interconnection of phenomena, for example, "logic of facts", "logic of things", "logic of history" and so on. Secondly, to designate patterns in the development of thought, for example, "logic of reasoning", "logic of thinking" and so on. Thirdly, the science of the laws of correct thinking is called logic. Consider logic in its last meaning.
Thinking is studied by many sciences: psychology, cybernetics, physiology, and others. A feature of logic is that its subject is the forms and methods of correct thinking... So, logic is the science of the ways and forms of correct thinking.
The main type of thinking is conceptual (or abstract-logical). It is he who is investigated by logic, that is, the object of logic is abstract thinking.
Abstract thinking is a process of rational * reflection of the objective world in concepts, judgments, inferences, hypotheses, theories, which allows one to penetrate into the essence, into the regular connections of reality, to creatively transform it, first in theory, and then in practice.
As you know, all objects, phenomena and processes have both content and form. Our knowledge of the form is quite diverse. The logical form is also understood in a variety of ways. Our thoughts are composed of some meaningful parts. The way they are connected is the form of thought.
So, various objects are reflected in abstract thinking in the same way - as a certain connection of their essential features, that is, in the form of a concept. The form of judgments reflects the relationship between objects and their properties. Changes in the properties of objects and the relationships between them are reflected in the form of inferences.
* Rational (from Latin ratio - reason) - referring to reason, justification by reason, accessible to reasonable understanding.
Consequently, each of the main forms of abstract thinking has something in common that does not depend on the concrete content of thoughts, namely: the way of connecting the elements of thought - signs in a concept, concepts in judgment and judgments in inference. The content of thoughts conditioned by these connections does not exist by itself, but in certain logical forms: concepts, judgments and inferences, each of which has its own specific structure.
Take, for example, two statements: "Some lawyers are teachers" and "Some socially dangerous acts are crimes against the personal property of citizens." Let's replace all their meaningful components with symbols. Let's say that what we think about is the Latin letter S, and what we think about S is the Latin letter P. As a result, we get in both cases the same elements of thought: “Some S is P”. This is the logical form of the above judgments. It is obtained as a result of abstraction from specific content.
In this way, logical form(or the form of abstract thinking) is a way of connecting the elements of thought, its structure, thanks to which the content exists and reflects reality.
In the real process of thinking, the content and form of thought exist in an indissoluble unity. There is no pure, formless content, no pure, meaningless logical forms. For example, the above logical form of judgments "Some S are P" still has some content. From it we learn that every object of thought denoted by the letter S (subject) has a feature denoted by the letter P (predicate). Moreover, the word "some" shows that the sign P belongs only to a part of the elements that make up the subject of thought. This is the "formal content".
However, for the purpose of special analysis, we can abstract ourselves from the concrete content of thought, making its form the subject of study. The study of logical forms, regardless of their specific content, is the most important task of the science of logic. Hence, its name is formal.
It should be borne in mind that formal logic, examining the forms of thinking, does not ignore its content. Forms, as has already been canceled, are filled with concrete content, are associated with a completely definite, specific, subject area. Form cannot exist outside this concrete content, and by itself does not determine anything from a practical point of view. The form is always meaningful, and the content is always framed. The distinction between its truth and correctness is connected with these aspects of thinking. Truth refers to the content of thoughts, and correctness refers to their form.
Considering the truth of thinking, formal (two-valued) logic proceeds from the fact that truth is understood as such a content of thought that corresponds to reality itself. The concept of "truth" in the legal sphere is closely related to the concept of "truth" ("I undertake to speak the truth and only the truth!"). Truthfulness is not only true, but also correct, honest, just. If the thought in its content does not correspond to reality, then it is false. From here the truth of thinking- this is its fundamental property, manifested in the ability to reproduce reality as it is, to correspond to it in its content. A falsity- the property of thinking to distort this content, to distort it.
Another important characteristic of thinking is its correctness. Correct thinking- this is its root property, which also manifests itself in relation to reality. It means the ability of thinking to reproduce in the structure of thought the objective structure of being, to correspond to the actual relations of objects and phenomena. Conversely, incorrect thinking means its ability to distort the structural connections and relationships of being.
Formal logic is distracted from the concrete content of thoughts,
and not from the content in general. Therefore, it takes into account the truth or falsity of the judgments under study. However, it shifts the center of gravity to the correctness of thinking. Moreover, the logical structures themselves are considered regardless of their constituent logical content. Since the task of logic includes the analysis of correct thinking, it is also called logical by the name of this science. Correct (logical) thinking has the following essential features or PROPERTIES: certainty, consistency, consistency and validity.
Certainty- this is the property of correct thinking to reproduce in the structure of thought the real signs and relationships of the objects and phenomena themselves, their relative stability. It finds its expression in the accuracy and clarity of thought, the absence of inconsistency and confusion in the elements of thought and the thoughts themselves.
Consistency - the property of correct thinking to avoid contradictions in the structure of thought that do not exist in the reflected reality. It manifests itself in the inadmissibility of logical contradictions in rigorous reasoning.
Sequence- the property of correct thinking to reproduce with the structure of thought those structural connections and relationships that are inherent in reality itself, the ability to follow the "logic of things and events." It is found in the consistency of thought to itself.
Validity there is a property of correct thinking to reflect objective cause-and-effect relationships and relationships of objects and phenomena of the surrounding world. It manifests itself in establishing the truth or falsity of thought on the basis of other thoughts, the truth of which was established earlier.
These essential features of correct thinking are not arbitrary. They are the result of human interaction with the outside world. They can neither be identified with the fundamental properties of reality itself, nor be torn away from them. The correctness of thinking, reflecting, first of all, the objective laws of the world, arises and exists spontaneously, long before the emergence of any rules. The logical rules themselves are only milestones on the path of comprehending the features of correct thinking, the laws operating in them, which are immeasurably richer than any, even the most complete, set of such rules. But the rules are developed on the basis of these laws precisely in order to regulate subsequent mental activity, to ensure its correctness already consciously.
Thus, the logical correctness of reasoning is due to the laws of abstract thinking. Violation of the requirements arising from them leads to logical errors. The law of thinking- this is a necessary, essential, stable connection of thoughts in the process of reasoning. These laws are the same for all people, regardless of their social and national identity. Logical laws operate independently of the will of people, they are not created at their will. They are a reflection of the connections between things of the objective world. At the same time, a person not only joins the sphere of action of a certain logical law, not only passively obeys its regulating influence, but also develops a conscious attitude towards objectively occurring thought processes. Knowledge of the laws of logic, the definition of their objective basis allows you to put forward and formulate its principles. The principles of formal logic, like the principles of any science, represent the unity of the objective and the subjective. On the one hand, they express the objective content of the laws of logic, on the other, they act as the rules of human mental activity. It is through the conscious formulation of principles that the laws of logic become regulators of people's mental activity.
Thus, formal logic, in order to be a means of discovering truth, must, on the basis of studying the formal structures of abstract thinking, preserve and take into account the logical correctness of reasoning due to logical laws.
What aspects of abstract thinking does formal logic study? First, she considers abstract thinking as a tool for understanding the world, as a means of obtaining formally true knowledge.
Secondly, she is interested in the practical effectiveness and correctness of mediated (inferential) knowledge obtained from earlier established and verified truths without resorting to experience, but only as a result of taking into account formal logical laws and applying the corresponding rules of abstract thinking.
Third, abstract thinking is viewed as a formal process that has its own special structure, which differs from the structure of the objectively true content of thinking.
That is why formal logic allows you to abstract from the content of the object and focus only on the forms in which this or that thought process takes place. These aspects of the interdependence of logic and thinking determine the features of formal logic as a science.
So, formal logic- This is the science of universally significant forms and means of thought, necessary for the rational cognition of being and its specific types. Generally significant forms of thought include concepts, judgments, inferences. Generally significant means of thought are rules (principles), logical operations, techniques and procedures, formal-logical laws underlying them, that is, everything that serves the purposes of implementing correct abstract thinking.
Consequently, the subject of formal logic is:
1) the forms of the thought process - concept, judgment, inference, hypothesis, proof, etc.;
2) the laws that abstract thinking is subject to in the process of cognizing the objective world and thinking itself;
3) methods of obtaining new inferential knowledge - similarities, differences, concomitant changes, residues, etc.;
4) ways of proving the truth or falsity of the knowledge gained - direct or indirect confirmation, refutation, etc.
Thus, logic in the broadest sense of its subject explores the structure of abstract thinking, reveals the underlying laws. However, abstract thinking, generalized, indirectly and actively reflecting reality, is inextricably linked with language. Linguistic expressions are that reality, the structure and method of use of which gives us knowledge not only about the content of thoughts, but also about their form, about the laws of thinking. Therefore, in the study of linguistic expressions and the relationship between them, logic sees one of its main tasks.
2. Specificity of logic as a science
Logic as a science includes such sections as formal logic, dialectical, symbolic, modal and others. The purpose of this work is formal logic.
The principles and rules of logic are universal, since in any science conclusions are constantly drawn, concepts are defined and refined, statements are formulated, facts are generalized, hypotheses are tested, etc. From this point of view, each science can be viewed as applied logic. But especially close connections exist between logic and those sciences that are engaged in the study of human mental activity, both individually and socially.
A clear delineation of the spheres of research of the sciences of spiritual activity is directly related to the definition of the subject and methods of research of logic.
The view of logic as a technology of thinking also has a number of attractive features, if only because in practice we most of all need to skillfully use the rules of reasoning, recommendations, how to effectively find arguments (premises for conclusions), build and test hypotheses, - in a word, all that is characterized as the art of thinking or guessing.
The nature of the laws of logic as a science is that they reflect the basic, constantly occurring connections and relationships that exist in the real world. That is why logic can be used to study them. But the real world, its specific laws are the subject of research in specific natural, social and technical sciences. Through the analysis of concepts, judgments and inferences used in these sciences, logic plays its role - a theoretical tool that serves to control the correctness and validity of reasoning and thereby contributes to the search and proof of truth.
The applied role of logic in specific sciences is not limited only to the direct analysis of reasoning. Its methods are widely used in the methodology of scientific knowledge to analyze such forms of scientific thinking as hypothesis, law, theory, as well as to reveal the logical structure of explanation and prediction, as the most important functions of any science. In recent decades, this direction of applied research has laid the foundation for logic of science, in which the concepts, laws and methods of logic are successfully applied to study arising in scientific knowledge not only purely logical, but also methodological problems.
In modern conditions of the development of social processes in Russia, logic, as a science, does not lose its relevance. This is due to two main reasons. One of them - features of the modern stage of development of society itself... This stage is characterized by an ever-increasing role of sciences in the development of all aspects of social life, its penetration into all pores of the social organism. Accordingly, the importance of logic, which investigates the means and laws of scientific knowledge, is also enhanced. And in the context of the modernization of the Russian economy, which requires an understanding of new, complex, diverse economic and social processes taking place in the life of society, the role of science, and therefore logic, increases many times over.
Another circumstance is a new, high-quality breakthrough in scientific and technological progress... In the 21st century, science and technology open up to the village unknown horizons of knowledge before society, and fundamental research allows one to penetrate into the secrets of the universe. At the same time, the importance of abstract thinking, and in this connection the growing importance of logic, which investigates its structure, forms and laws, cannot be overestimated. In modern conditions of the deployment of a new stage of the scientific and technological revolution, associated with deep structural and informational changes in production and management, the implementation of the achievements of cybernetics and nanoindustry, the need for logic, especially symbolic, becomes even more tangible and necessary.
3. The place of logic among other sciences that study thinking.
Logic is a complex, multifaceted phenomenon of the spiritual life of mankind. Currently, there are a great many different branches of scientific knowledge. Depending on the object of research, they are divided into natural sciences - natural sciences and social sciences - social sciences. In comparison with them, the originality of logic lies in the fact that thinking is its object.
What is the place of logic among other sciences that study thinking?
Philosophy explores thinking in general. It solves a fundamental philosophical question related to the relationship of man and his thinking to the world around him.
Psychology studies thinking as one of the mental processes along with emotions, will, etc. It reveals the interaction of thinking with them in the course of practical activity and scientific knowledge, analyzes the motives of a person's mental activity, reveals the thinking features of children, adults, mentally normal people and persons with disabilities.
Physiology reveals material, physiological processes, explores the laws of these processes, their physicochemical and biological mechanisms.
Cybernetics reveals the general patterns of control and communication in a living organism, technical structure and in a person's thinking, associated primarily with his managerial activity.
Linguistics shows the inextricable connection between thinking and language, their unity and difference, their interaction with each other. She reveals ways of expressing thoughts using linguistic means.
The peculiarity of logic as a science of thinking lies precisely in the fact that it considers this object, common to a number of sciences, from the point of view of its functions and structure, that is, the role and meaning in cognition and practical activity, and at the same time from the point of view of its constituent elements, as well as connections and relationships between them. This is its own, specific subject of logic. Therefore, it is defined as the science of the forms and laws of correct thinking leading to truth.
There is an opinion that the ability to reason logically is inherent in people by nature. It is wrong.
But if a logical culture is not given to a person by nature, then how is it formed?
The logical culture of thinking is mastered in the course of communication, study at school and university, in the process of reading literature. Meeting repeatedly with one way or another of reasoning, we gradually master them and begin to understand which of them are correct and which are not. The logical culture of a lawyer rises in the course of his professional activity.
The indicated path of the formation of a logical culture can be called spontaneous. It is not the best, since people who have not studied logic, as a rule, do not know one or another logical technique, and, in addition, they have a different logical culture, which does not contribute to mutual understanding.
The value of logic for lawyers.
The specificity of a lawyer's work lies in the constant use of special logical techniques and methods: definitions and classifications, argumentation and refutation, etc. The degree of mastery of these techniques, methods and other logical means is an indicator of the level of the logical culture of a lawyer.
Knowledge of logic is an integral part of legal education. It allows you to correctly build forensic versions, draw up clear plans for the investigation of crimes, and avoid mistakes when drawing up official documents, protocols, indictments, decisions and orders.
Famous lawyers have always used the knowledge of logic. In court, they usually did not confine themselves to simple disagreements, for example, with the arguments of the prosecution, if they saw a logical error in them. They explained what mistake was made, said that this mistake is specially considered in logic and has a special name. Such an argument had an impact on everyone present, even if those present had never studied logic.
Knowledge of the rules and laws of logic is not the ultimate goal of studying it. The ultimate goal of studying logic is the ability to apply its rules and laws in the process of thinking.
Truth and logic are interconnected, so the value of logic cannot be overemphasized. Logic helps to prove true narrowings and refute false ones, it teaches us to think clearly, concisely, correctly. All people, employees of various professions need logic.
Conclusion
Human thinking obeys logical laws and proceeds in logical forms independently of the science of logic. Many people think logically without knowing its rules. Of course, one can think correctly without studying logic, but one cannot underestimate the practical significance of this science.
The task of logic is to teach a person to consciously apply the laws and forms of thinking and on the basis of this it is more logical to think, to correctly perceive the world around him. Knowledge of logic increases the culture of thinking, develops the skill to think "competently", develops a critical attitude to one's own and other people's thoughts.
Logic is a necessary tool that frees you from personal, unnecessary memorization, helping to find in the mass of information that valuable that a person needs. It is needed "by any specialist, be he a mathematician, physician, biologist." (Anokhin N.K.).
Thinking logically means thinking accurately and consistently, not allowing contradictions in your reasoning, and being able to reveal logical errors. These qualities of thinking are of great importance in any field of scientific and practical activity, including the work of a lawyer.
Knowledge of logic helps a lawyer prepare a logically coherent, well-reasoned speech, uncover contradictions in testimony, and so on. All this matters in the work of a lawyer aimed at strengthening the rule of law and order.
List of used literature:
1. Geitmanova A.D. Logic tutorial. Moscow 1995
2. Demidov I.V. Logic - study guide Moscow 2000.
3. Ruzavin G.I. Logic and argumentation. Moscow 1997
4. Concise Dictionary of Logic. Edited by Gorsky. Moscow Enlightenment 1991
5. Kirillov V.I., Starchenko A.A. Logics. Edition 5th 2004
Exercises:
1. Establish the content and scope of the following concepts: natural phenomenon, natural disaster, earthquake.
etc.................
LOGIC AS A SCIENCE
1. The subject of logic
2. The emergence and development of logic
3. The language of logic
4. Forms and laws of thinking
1. The subject of logic
Key words: logic, thinking, sensory cognition, abstract thinking.
Logic (from the Greek: logos - word, concept, mind) is the science of the forms and laws of correct thinking. The mechanism of thinking is studied by a number of sciences: psychology, epistemology, cybernetics, etc. The subject of scientific logical analysis is the forms, methods and laws of thinking, with the help of which a person learns the world around him and himself. Thinking is a process of indirect reflection of reality in the form of ideal images.
Forms and methods of thinking, contributing to the knowledge of the truth. A person acquires knowledge about the phenomena of the world in the process of active purposeful cognition: the subject is the object's interaction of a person with fragments of reality. Cognition is represented by several levels, a number of forms and techniques that lead the researcher to the correct conclusions, when the truth of the initial knowledge presupposes the truth of the conclusions.
We know that sensory cognition is the first level. It is carried out on the basis of the senses, their comprehension and synthesis. Let us recall the main forms of sensory cognition:
1) sensation;
2) perception;
3) presentation.
This level of cognition has a number of important techniques, among which the analysis and systematization of sensations, the formation of impressions into a holistic image, memorization and recollection of previously acquired knowledge, imagination, etc. are distinguished. Sensory cognition gives knowledge about the external, individual properties and qualities of phenomena. Man, on the other hand, strives for knowledge of the deep properties and essences of things and phenomena, the laws of the world and society. Therefore, he resorts to the study of problems of interest to him at an abstract theoretical level. At this level, such forms of abstract knowledge are formed as:
a) concept;
b) judgment;
c) inference.
When resorting to these forms of cognition, a person is guided by such techniques as abstraction, generalization, distraction from the particular, highlighting the essential, deriving new knowledge from the previously known, etc.
The difference between abstract thinking and sensory-figurative reflection and knowledge of the world. As a result of sensory cognition, a person forms knowledge obtained directly from experience in the form of ideal images based on sensations, experiences, impressions, etc. Abstract thinking marks the transition from studying individual aspects of objects to comprehending laws, general connections and relationships. At this stage of cognition, fragments of reality are reproduced without direct contact with the sensory-objective world by replacing them with abstractions. Disregarding a single object and a temporary state, thinking is able to distinguish in them the general and the repetitive, the essential and the necessary.
Abstract thinking is inextricably linked with language. Language is the main means of fixing thoughts. In linguistic form, not only meaningful meanings are set forth, but also logical ones. With the help of language, a person formulates, expresses and transmits thoughts, fixes knowledge.
It is important to understand that our thinking indirectly reflects reality: through a series of interconnected knowledge through logical consequences, it is possible to arrive at new knowledge without contacting directly with the subject-sensory world.
The meaning of logic in cognition follows from the possibilities of deriving reliable knowledge not only in a formal logical way, but also in a dialectical way.
The task of logical action is, first of all, in the detection of such rules and forms of thinking, which, regardless of specific meanings, will always lead to true conclusions.
Logic studies the structures of thinking that lead to a sequential transition from one judgment to another and form a consistent system of reasoning. At the same time, it performs an important methodological function. Its essence lies in the development of research programs and technologies suitable for obtaining objective knowledge. This contributes to the arming of a person with the main means, methods and methods of scientific and theoretical knowledge.
The second main function of logic is analytical-critical, realizing which, it acts as a means of detecting errors in reasoning and control over the correctness of the construction of thought.
Logic is also capable of performing theoretical and cognitive tasks. Without stopping at the construction of formal connections and elements of thinking, logical knowledge is able to adequately explain the meaning and meanings of language expressions, express the relationship between the cognizing subject and the cognitive object, and also reveal the logical-dialectical development of the objective world.
Tasks and exercises
1. The same cube with numbers (0, 1, 4, 5, 6, 8) on its faces is in three different positions.
0 |
4 |
0 |
4 |
5 |
Logic is one of the most ancient subjects, standing next to philosophy and sociology and being an essential general cultural phenomenon from the very beginning of its emergence. The role of this science in the modern world is important and multifaceted. Those who possess knowledge in this area can conquer the whole world. It was believed that this is the only science capable of finding compromise solutions in any situation. Many scientists attribute the discipline to others, but in turn, refute this possibility.
Naturally, over time, the orientation of logical research changes, methods are improved and new trends appear that meet scientific and technical requirements. This is necessary because every year society is faced with new problems that cannot be solved with outdated methods. The subject of logic studies the thinking of a person from the side of those laws that he uses in the process of knowing the truth. In fact, since the discipline we are considering is very multifaceted, it is studied using several methods. Let's take a look at them.
Etymology of logic
Etymology is a branch of linguistics, the main purpose of which is the origin of a word, its study from the point of view of semantics (meaning). "Logos" in translation from Greek means "word", "thought", "knowledge". Thus, we can say that logic is a subject that studies thinking (reasoning). However, psychology, philosophy and physiology of nervous activity, one way or another, also study thinking, but can we say that these sciences study the same thing? Rather, the opposite is true - in a sense, they are opposite. The difference between these sciences is the way of thinking. Ancient philosophers believed that a person's thinking is diverse, because he is able to analyze situations and create an algorithm for performing certain tasks to achieve a specific goal. For example, philosophy as a subject is rather just a discussion about life, about the meaning of being, while logic, in addition to idle reflections, leads to a certain result.
Reference Method
Let's try to refer to dictionaries. Here the meaning of this term is somewhat different. From the point of view of the authors of encyclopedias, logic is a subject that studies the laws and forms of human thinking from the surrounding reality. This science is interested in how “living” true knowledge functions, and in search of answers to their questions, scientists do not turn to each specific case, but are guided by special rules and laws of thinking. The main task of logic as a science of thinking is to take into account only the method of obtaining new knowledge in the process of cognizing the surrounding world, without associating its form with a specific content.
The principle of logic
The subject matter and meaning of logic is best seen through a concrete example. Let's take two statements from different fields of science.
- “All stars have their own radiation. The sun is a star. It has its own radiation. "
- Any witness must tell the truth. My friend is a witness. My friend is obliged to tell the truth.
If you analyze it, you can see that in each of them two reasoning explains the third. Although each of the examples belongs to different areas of knowledge, the way in which the constituent parts of the content are related in each of them is the same. Namely: if an object has a certain property, then everything that concerns this quality has a different property. Result: The item in question also has this second property. These causal relationships are commonly called logic. This relationship can be observed in many situations in life.
Let's turn to history
To understand the true meaning of this science, you need to know how and under what circumstances it arose. It turns out that the subject of logic as a science arose in several countries almost simultaneously: in Ancient India, in Ancient China and in Ancient Greece. If we talk about Greece, then this science arose during the disintegration of the clan system and the formation of such strata of the population as merchants, landowners and artisans. Those who ruled Greece infringed on the interests of almost all segments of the population, and the Greeks began to actively express their positions. In order to resolve the conflict peacefully, each side used its own arguments and arguments. This gave impetus to the development of such a science as logic. The subject was used very actively, because it was very important to win the discussions in order to influence decision-making.
In ancient China, logic arose during the golden age of Chinese philosophy, or, as it was also called, the period of "struggling states." Similar to the situation in Ancient Greece, there also flared up a struggle between the wealthy strata of the population and the authorities. The first wanted to change the structure of the state and abolish the transfer of power by hereditary means. During such a struggle, in order to win, it was necessary to gather around him as many supporters as possible. However, if in Ancient Greece this served as an additional incentive for the development of logic, then in Ancient China it was quite the opposite. After the Qin kingdom nevertheless became dominant, and the so-called cultural revolution took place, the development of logic at this stage
e stopped.
Considering that in different countries this science arose precisely during the period of struggle, the subject and meaning of logic can be characterized as follows: it is the science of the sequence of human thinking, which can positively influence the solution of conflict situations and disputes.
The main subject of logic
It is difficult to single out one definite meaning that would generally characterize such an ancient science. For example, the subject of logic is the study of the laws of deriving correct certain judgments and statements from certain true circumstances. This is how Friedrich Ludwig Gottlob Frege characterized this ancient science. The concept and subject of logic was also studied by Andrei Nikolaevich Schuman, a well-known modern logician. He believed that it was the science of thinking, which explores different ways of thinking and models them. In addition, the object and subject of logic is, of course, speech, because logic is realized only through conversation or discussion, and it does not matter at all whether aloud or "inwardly."
The above statements indicate that the subject of the science of logic is the structure of thinking and its various properties that separate the sphere of abstract logical, rational thinking - forms of thinking, laws, the necessary relationships between structural elements and the correctness of thinking to achieve truth.
The process of seeking truth
In simple terms, logic is a thought process of the search for truth, because on the basis of its principles, the process of the search for scientific knowledge is formed. There are various forms and methods of using logic, and they are all combined into a theory of the derivation of knowledge in various fields of science. This is the so-called traditional logic, within which there are more than 10 different methods, but the deductive logic of Descartes and the inductive logic of Bacon are still considered the main ones.
Deductive logic
We all know the deduction method. Its use is somehow connected with such science as logic. The subject of Descartes' logic is a method of scientific knowledge, the essence of which lies in the strict derivation of new ones from certain provisions that were previously studied and proved. He was able to explain why, since the initial statements are true, then the derived ones are also true.
For deductive logic, it is very important that there are no contradictions in the initial statements, since later they can lead to incorrect conclusions. Deductive logic is very precise and does not tolerate assumptions. All postulates that are used are usually based on verified data. This one has the power of persuasion and is used, as a rule, in the exact sciences such as mathematics. Moreover, the very method of finding the truth is not questioned, but the very method of finding the truth is being studied. For example, the well-known Pythagorean theorem. How can you question its correctness? Rather, on the contrary, it is necessary to learn a theorem and learn how to prove it. The subject "Logic" studies exactly this direction. With its help, with knowledge of certain laws and properties of an object, it becomes possible to derive new ones.
Inductive logic
We can say that the so-called inductive logic of Bacon practically contradicts the basic principles of deductive. If the previous method is used for exact sciences, then this one is for natural ones, in which logic is needed. The subject of logic in such sciences: knowledge is obtained through observation and experiment. There is no place for precise data and calculations. All calculations are made only purely theoretically, with the aim of studying an object or phenomenon. The essence of inductive logic is as follows:
- Carry out constant observation of the object that is being investigated, and create an artificial situation that could arise purely theoretically. This is necessary to study the properties of certain objects that cannot be learned in natural conditions. This is a prerequisite for learning inductive logic.
- Based on observations, collect as many facts as possible about the object under study. It is very important to note that since the conditions were created artificially, the facts can be distorted, but this does not mean that they are false.
- Summarize and systematize the data obtained during the experiments. This is necessary to assess the situation that has arisen. If the data turns out to be insufficient, then the phenomenon or object must be placed again in another artificial situation.
- Create a theory to explain the data obtained and predict their further development. This is the final stage, which serves to summarize. The theory can be formulated without taking into account the actual data obtained, however, it will nevertheless be accurate.
For example, on the basis of empirical research on natural phenomena, oscillations of sound, light, waves, etc., physicists have formulated the proposition that any phenomenon of a periodic nature can be measured. Of course, for each phenomenon, separate conditions were created and certain calculations were carried out. Depending on the complexity of the artificial situation, the readings varied significantly. This is what made it possible to prove that the periodicity of the oscillation can be measured. Bacon explained scientific induction as a method of scientific cognition of cause-and-effect relationships and a method of scientific discovery.
Causal relationship
From the very beginning of the development of the science of logic, much attention was paid to precisely this factor, which affects the entire process of research. Causality is a very important aspect in the learning process of logic. A reason is a certain event or object (1), which naturally influences the emergence of another object or phenomenon (2). The subject of the science of logic, formally speaking, is to find out the reasons for this sequence. Indeed, from the above, it turns out that (1) is the cause of (2).
An example can be given: scientists who study outer space and the objects that are there have discovered the phenomenon of a "black hole". This is a kind of cosmic body, the gravitational field of which is so great that it is capable of absorbing any other object in space. Now let's find out the cause-and-effect relationship of this phenomenon: if any cosmic body is very large: (1), then it is capable of absorbing any other (2).
Basic methods of logic
The subject of logic briefly studies many areas of life, but in most cases the information obtained depends on the logical method. For example, analysis is called the figurative division of the object under study into certain parts, in order to study its properties. Analysis, as a rule, is necessarily associated with synthesis. If the first method divides the phenomenon, then the second, on the contrary, connects the received parts to establish a relationship between them.
Another interesting subject of logic is the abstraction method. This is the process of mentally separating certain properties of an object or phenomenon in order to study them. All these techniques can be classified as cognitive methods.
There is also a method of interpretation, which consists in the knowledge of the sign system of certain objects. Thus, objects and phenomena can be given a symbolic meaning that will facilitate understanding of the essence of the object itself.
Modern logic
Modern logic is not a teaching, but a reflection of the world. As a rule, this science has two periods of formation. The first begins in the Ancient World (Ancient Greece, Ancient India, Ancient China) and ends in the 19th century. The second period begins in the second half of the 19th century and continues to this day. Philosophers and scientists of our time do not stop studying this ancient science. It would seem that all its methods and principles have long been studied by Aristotle and his followers, but every year logic as a science, a subject of logic, as well as its features continue to be studied.
One of the features of modern logic is the spread of the subject of research, which is due to new types and ways of thinking. This led to the emergence of such new types of modal logic as logic of change and causal logic. It has been proven that such models differ significantly from those already studied.
Modern logic as a science is used in many spheres of life, such as engineering and information technology. For example, if you consider how a computer is arranged and works, you can find out that all programs on it are executed using an algorithm, where logic is involved in one way or another. In other words, we can say that the scientific process has reached that level of development where devices and mechanisms operating on logical principles are successfully created and put into operation.
Another example of the use of logic in modern science is control programs in CNC machines and installations. Here, too, a seemingly iron robot performs logical actions. However, such examples only formally show us the development of modern logic, because such a way of thinking can only be possessed by a living being, such as a person. Moreover, many scientists are still debating whether animals can have logical skills. All research in this area boils down to the fact that the principle of action of animals is based only on their instincts. Only a person can receive information, process it and give the result.
Research in the field of such a science as logic may still go on for thousands of years, because the human brain has not been thoroughly studied. Every year people are born more and more developed, which indicates the ongoing evolution of man.
Book: LOGIC FOR LAWYERS: LECTURES. / Law College of LNU named after Franco
2. Logic as a science: its subject matter, method, as well as the practical significance of its knowledge.
When defining the subject of the science of logic in the logical-philosophical literature, take into account three aspects: ontological (philosophical doctrine of being), epistemological (cognitive) and formal-logical ... V ontological Aspect, the objective basis of the science of logic is determined - the objective existence of objects, phenomena, processes (empirical objects), between which there are various interrelationships (causal, spatial, temporal, genetic, etc.), that is, what is called the "logic of things". V epistemological (late gross) aspect the process of displaying the "logic of things", "the logic of events" in the "logic of concepts" and the formation of a system of concepts (categories) that cover the essence of objectively existing things, phenomena and processes are determined. V formal logical aspect the necessary interconnections between logical forms of thinking (concepts, judgments, inferences) are determined, which are determined not by the content of thinking, but only by its structure. All these aspects appear in unity. Given this unity, the following definition of the subject of the science of logic can be given:
Logic is a science that studies the laws and forms of human mental activity, principles and means of building correct judgments and reasoning about objects and phenomena of the objective world, methods of formalizing knowledge as a result of the cognitive process.
Features of logic as a science:
- studies the laws and forms of mental activity of people based on the analysis of theirlinguistic expressions, that is, through the implementation (materialization) of the results of mental activity in the language; creates its own specific language (logical language) to analyze the structure of thinking and formalize knowledge.
- the study of logic requires concentration and a systematic approach. All sections of the textbook are interconnected; it is impossible to understand the next topic without mastering the previous one. Learning logic takes a lot of time and effort. As one wise man said: "In the waters of logic one should not sail with sails raised."
- theoretical assimilationThis material from logic does not mean that a person will be able to apply it in practice. It is possible to find a way out of this situation by combining theory with the solution of practical problems. In this regard, after studying a particular topic, it is recommended to complete the relevant practical tasks, as well as consciously apply the acquired logical skills as often as possible in everyday life, when writing control and term papers, mastering the material of legal disciplines, in discussions, disputes, etc. ... Only under these conditions can a person learn to think logically correctly, avoiding elementary logical errors in his reasoning and recognizing them in the reasoning of other people.
As a result of successful assimilation of theoretical material and practicing it in practice, the student will be able to:
♦ identify the basic concepts in the text, find out their structure, establish the relationship between them;
♦ logically correctly divide, classify, define concepts;
♦ find errors in sections, classifications, definitions, criticize them and not allow them in their reasoning;
♦ identify the logical structure of statements and, on the basis of this, interpret them;
♦ reason in accordance with the laws of logic; find mercy in the texts and reasoning of other people related to their violation;
♦ analyze interrogative-answer situations, logically correctly ask questions and give answers to them;
♦ to show reasoning, initial positions and consequences contained in the text;
♦ deduce rational conclusions on the available information according to the rules and laws of logic;
♦ logically competently build your reasoning and find errors in the reasoning of opponents;
♦ construct correct argumentation;
♦ persuasively criticize the argumentation of the opponent;
♦ avoid common mistakes in argumentation and criticism;
♦ to recognize the methods of manipulation of the interlocutor and to resist them.
Mastering the skills of logical thinking is of particular importance for lawyers, the specificity of whose work lies in the constant application of logical techniques and methods: definitions and classifications, divisions, argumentation, refutations, etc.
Knowledge of logic greatly helps a lawyer:
♦ analyze legal terminology in codes and other regulations; to find out whether a certain norm follows from other norms, its inclusion in a legal document will not be superfluous, whether a new normative act is an addition or negation of an old one, etc .;
♦ apply logical methods in the process of criminal-legal qualification of a crime;
♦ build forensic versions using the methods of logic;
♦ draw up clear plans for the investigation of crimes;
♦ apply logical methods in the process of predicting crime and assessing the activities of law enforcement agencies;
♦ avoid logical mistakes when drawing up official documents: protocols of interrogation and inspection of the scene of the incident, decisions and resolutions, reports, contracts, etc .;
♦ to conduct disputes in court at a high level: to defend
own opinion and criticize the opinion of the enemy; quickly find logical errors during the trial;
♦ apply the methods of logic for the study of scientific problems in jurisprudence.
1. | LOGIC FOR LAWYERS: LECTURES. / Law College of LNU named after Franco |
2. | 2. Logic as a science: its subject matter, method, as well as the practical significance of its knowledge. |
3. | 3. Historical stages in the development of logical knowledge: the logic of Ancient India, the logic of Ancient Greece |
4. | 4. Features of general or traditional (aristotelivskoy) logic. |
5. | 5. Features of symbolic or mathematical logic. |
6. | 6. Theoretical and practical logic. |
7. | Topic 2: THINKING AND SPEECH 1. Thinking (reasoning): definition and features. |
8. | 2. Activity and thinking |
9. | 3. Structure of thinking |
10. | 4. Correct and incorrect reasoning. Logical error concept |
11. | 5. Logical form of reasoning |
12. | 6. Types and types of thinking. |
13. | 7. Features of the lawyer's thinking |
14. | 8. The value of logic for lawyers |
15. | Topic 3: Semiotics as a science of signs. Language as a sign system. 1. Semiotics as the science of signs |
16. | 2. The concept of a sign. Types of rear signs |
17. | 3. Language as a sign system. Language signs. |
18. | 4. The structure of the sign process. The structure of the meaning of the sign. Typical logical errors |
19. | 5. Measurements and levels of the sign process |
20. | 6. Language of law |
21. | Section III. METHODOLOGICAL FUNCTION OF FORMAL LOGIC 1. Method and methodology. |
22. | 2. Logical research methods (cognition) |
23. | 3. Method of formalization |
24. | BASIC FORMS AND LAWS OF ABSTRACT-LOGICAL THINKING 1. General characteristics of the concept as a form of thinking. Concept structure |
25. | 2. Types of concepts. Logical characteristics of concepts |
26. | 3. Types of relationships between concepts |
27. | 4. Operations with concepts 4.1. Limitation and generalization of concepts |
28. | 4.2. Operation of division of concepts |
29. | 4.3. Addition, multiplication and subtraction of concepts (more precisely, their volumes) |
30. | 4.4 The operation of defining a concept |
31. | BASIC FORMS AND LAWS OF ABSTRACT LOGICAL THINKING II. Statements. 1. General characteristics of the statement |
32. | 2. The truth and falsity of the statement. |
33. | 3. Simple statements, their structure and types |
34. |
Every day we are faced with many tasks, the solution of which requires us to be able to think logically. Logic as the ability to think and reason consistently and consistently is required for us in many life situations, from solving complex technical and business problems, ending with persuading interlocutors and making purchases in a store.
But despite the high need for this skill, we often make logical mistakes without knowing it. Indeed, among many people there is an opinion that it is possible to think correctly on the basis of life experience and the so-called common sense, without using the laws and special techniques of “formal logic”. Common sense may be suitable for performing simple logical operations, expressing elementary judgments and simple conclusions, and if you need to know or explain something more complex, then common sense often leads us to delusions.
The reasons for these delusions lie in the principles of development and formation of the foundations of the logical thinking of people, which are laid in childhood. Logical thinking is not taught purposefully, but is identified with mathematics lessons (for children at school or for students at the university), as well as with solving and passing various games, tests, problems and puzzles. But such actions contribute to the development of only a small fraction of the processes of logical thinking. In addition, they explain to us the principles of finding solutions to tasks in a rather primitive way. As for the development of verbal-logical thinking (or verbal-logical), the ability to correctly perform mental operations, consistently come to conclusions, for some reason we are not taught this. That is why the level of development of the logical thinking of people is not high enough.
We believe that a person's logical thinking and his ability to learn should develop systematically and on the basis of a special terminological apparatus and logical tools. In the classes of this online training, you will learn about self-education methods for developing logical thinking, get acquainted with the main categories, principles, features and laws of logic, and also find examples and exercises for applying the knowledge and skills acquired.
What is logical thinking?
To explain what "logical thinking" is, let's divide this concept into two parts: thinking and logic. Now let's define each of these components.
Human thinking Is a mental process of processing information and establishing connections between objects, their properties or phenomena of the surrounding world. Thinking allows a person to find connections between the phenomena of reality, but in order for the connections found to really reflect the true state of affairs, thinking must be objective, correct, or, in other words, logical, that is, subordinate to the laws of logic.
Logics translated from Greek, it has several meanings: "the science of correct thinking", "the art of reasoning", "speech", "reasoning" and even "thought". In our case, we will proceed from the most popular definition of logic as a normative science about the forms, methods and laws of human intellectual mental activity. Logic studies the methods of achieving truth in the process of cognition in an indirect way, not from sensory experience, but from knowledge obtained earlier, therefore it can also be defined as the science of methods of obtaining inferential knowledge. One of the main tasks of logic is to determine how to come to a conclusion from the existing premises and get true knowledge about the subject of thought in order to understand more deeply the nuances of the studied subject of thought and its relationship with other aspects of the phenomenon under consideration.
Now we can define logical thinking itself.
This is a thought process in which a person uses logical concepts and constructions, which is characterized by evidence, prudence, and the purpose of which is to obtain a reasonable conclusion from the existing premises.
There are also several types of logical thinking, we list them, starting with the simplest:
Figurative and logical thinking
Figurative and logical thinking (visual-figurative thinking) - various thought processes of the so-called "figurative" problem solving, which involves a visual representation of the situation and the operation of images of its constituent objects. Visual-figurative thinking, in fact, is a synonym for the word "imagination", which allows us to most vividly and clearly recreate all the variety of different factual characteristics of an object or phenomenon. This type of human mental activity is formed in childhood, starting from about 1.5 years.
To understand how developed this type of thinking is, we suggest that you take the IQ Test "Raven's Progressive Matrices"
The Raven Test is a scale of progressive matrices for assessing IQ and intelligence, as well as logical thinking, developed in 1936 by John Raven in collaboration with Roger Penrose. This test can give the most objective assessment of the IQ of the people being tested, regardless of their level of education, social class, occupation, linguistic and cultural characteristics. That is, it can be argued with high probability that the data obtained as a result of this test from two people from different parts of the world will equally assess their IQ. The objectivity of the assessment is ensured by the fact that the basis of this test is exclusively formed by images of figures, and since Raven's matrices are among the non-verbal tests of intelligence, his tasks do not contain text.
The test consists of 60 tables. You will be offered drawings with shapes connected by a certain dependency. One piece is missing, it is given at the bottom of the picture among 6-8 other pieces. Your task is to establish a pattern connecting the figures in the figure, and indicate the number of the correct figure, choosing from the proposed options. Each series of tables contains tasks of increasing difficulty, at the same time, the complexity of the type of tasks is observed from series to series.
Abstract logical thinking
Abstract logical thinking- This is the completion of the thought process using categories that are not in nature (abstractions). Abstract thinking helps a person to model relationships not only between real objects, but also between abstract and figurative representations that thinking itself created. Abstract logical thinking has several forms: concept, judgment and inference, which you can learn more about in the lessons of our training.
Verbal and logical thinking
Verbal and logical thinking (verbal-logical thinking) - one of the types of logical thinking, characterized by the use of linguistic means and speech structures. This type of thinking presupposes not only skillful use of thought processes, but also competent command of one's speech. We need verbal and logical thinking for public speaking, writing texts, arguing and in other situations where we have to express our thoughts using language.
Application of logic
Thinking using the tools of logic is necessary in almost any area of human activity, including the exact and human sciences, economics and business, rhetoric and public speaking, in the creative process and invention. In some cases, strict and formalized logic is used, for example, in mathematics, philosophy, technology. In other cases, logic only provides a person with useful techniques for obtaining a reasoned conclusion, for example, in economics, history, or simply in ordinary "life" situations.
As already mentioned, we often try to think logically on an intuitive level. Someone succeeds well, someone worse. But when connecting the logical apparatus, it is still better to know what kind of thinking methods we use, since in this case we can:
- More precisely, choose the right method that will allow you to come to the correct conclusion;
- Think faster and better - as a consequence of the previous paragraph;
- Better to express your thoughts;
- Avoid self-deception and logical delusions,
- To identify and eliminate errors in the conclusions of other people, to cope with sophistry and demagoguery;
- Apply the right reasoning to persuade the interlocutors.
Often the use of logical thinking is associated with the quick solution of logic tasks and passing tests to determine the level of intellectual development (IQ). But this direction is connected to a greater extent with bringing mental operations to automatism, which is a very insignificant part of how logic can be useful to a person.
The ability to think logically combines many skills for using various mental actions and includes:
- Knowledge of the theoretical foundations of logic.
- The ability to correctly perform such mental operations as: classification, concretization, generalization, comparison, analogy and others.
- Confident use of key forms of thinking: concept, judgment, inference.
- The ability to argue your thoughts in accordance with the laws of logic.
- Skill to quickly and effectively solve complex logical problems (both educational and applied).
Of course, such operations of thinking with the use of logic as definition, classification and categorization, proof, refutation, inference, inference and many others are used by every person in his mental activity. But we use them unconsciously and often with errors without a clear idea of the depth and complexity of those mental actions that make up even the most elementary act of thinking. And if you want your logical thinking to be really correct and rigorous, you need to specifically and purposefully learn this.
How can I learn this?
Logical thinking is not given to us from birth, it can only be learned. There are two main aspects of teaching logic: theoretical and practical.
Theoretical logic , which is taught at universities, introduces students to the basic categories, laws and rules of logic.
Practical training is aimed at applying the knowledge gained in life. However, in reality, modern teaching of practical logic is usually associated with passing various tests and solving problems to check the level of intelligence development (IQ) and for some reason does not affect the application of logic in real life situations.
To actually master logic, you need to combine theoretical and applied aspects. Lessons and exercises should be aimed at the formation of an intuitive logical toolkit brought to automatism and consolidation of the knowledge gained in order to apply it in real situations.
On this principle, the online training, which you are reading now, was compiled. The goal of this course is to teach you how to think logically and apply the methods of logical thinking. Classes are aimed at acquainting with the basics of logical thinking (thesaurus, theories, methods, models), mental operations and forms of thinking, the rules of argumentation and the laws of logic. In addition, each lesson contains tasks and exercises to train the use of the knowledge gained in practice.
Logic lessons
Having collected a wide range of theoretical materials, as well as having studied and adapted the experience of teaching applied forms of logical thinking, we have prepared a number of lessons for the full mastery of this skill.
We will devote the first lesson of our course to a complex, but very important topic - the logical analysis of language. It should be noted right away that this topic may seem to many to be abstract, loaded with terminology, inapplicable in practice. Do not be alarmed! The logical analysis of a language is the basis of any logical system and correct reasoning. The terms that we learn here will become our logical alphabet, without the knowledge of which we simply cannot go further, but gradually we will learn to use it with ease.
A logical concept is a form of thinking that reflects objects and phenomena in their essential features. Concepts are of different types: concrete and abstract, singular and general, collective and non-collective, non-relative and correlative, positive and negative, and others. Within the framework of logical thinking, it is important to be able to distinguish between these types of concepts, as well as to produce new concepts and definitions, find relationships between concepts and perform special actions on them: generalization, limitation and division. All of this you will learn in this lesson.
In the first two lessons, we talked about the task of logic - to help us move from an intuitive use of language, accompanied by errors and disagreements, to a more orderly use of it, devoid of ambiguity. The ability to correctly handle concepts is one of the necessary skills for this. Another equally important skill is the ability to correctly define. In this tutorial, we'll show you how to learn it and how to avoid the most common mistakes.
Logical judgment is a form of thinking in which something is affirmed or denied about the surrounding world, objects, phenomena, as well as relationships and connections between them. Judgments in logic consist of a subject (which is what the judgment is about), a predicate (what is said about the subject), a connective (which connects the subject and the predicate) and a quantifier (the volume of the subject). Judgments can be of various types: simple and complex, categorical, general, particular, single. The forms of the connectives between the subject and the predicate also differ: equivalence, intersection, subordination and compatibility. In addition, within the framework of compound (complex) judgments, there can be their own ligaments, which determine six more types of complex judgments. The ability to think logically implies the ability to correctly build various types of judgments, understand their structural elements, signs, relationships between judgments, and also check whether the judgment is true or false.
Before moving on to the last third form of thinking (inference), it is important to understand what logical laws exist, or, in other words, objectively existing rules for constructing logical thinking. Their purpose, on the one hand, is to help build inferences and argumentation, and on the other, to prevent errors and violations of logic associated with reasoning. This lesson will consider the following laws of formal logic: the law of identity, the law of the excluded middle, the law of contradiction, the law of sufficient reason, as well as de Morgan's laws, the laws of deductive inference, Clavius's law and the laws of division. By studying the examples and completing specific exercises, you will learn to use each of these laws in a targeted manner.
Inference is the third form of thinking in which from one, two or more judgments, called premises, a new judgment follows, called a conclusion or inference. Inferences are divided into three types: deductive, inductive and analogy. With deductive inference (deduction), a conclusion is drawn from the general rule for a particular case. Induction is inference in which a general rule is derived from several particular cases. In inferences by analogy, based on the similarity of objects in some features, a conclusion is made about their similarity in other features. In this lesson, you will get acquainted with all types and subtypes of inferences, learn to build a variety of cause-and-effect relationships.
This lesson will focus on multi-premise reasoning. As in the case of one-premise inferences, all the necessary information in a latent form will already be present in the premises. However, since there will now be a lot of premises, the methods of extracting it become more complicated, and therefore the information obtained in the conclusion will not seem trivial. In addition, it should be noted that there are many different types of multi-premise inference. We will focus only on syllogisms. They differ in that both in the premises and in the conclusion they have categorical attributive statements and, on the basis of the presence or absence of some properties in objects, they make it possible to conclude about the presence or absence of other properties in them.
In the previous lessons, we talked about the different logical operations that form an important part of any reasoning. Among them were operations on concepts, definitions, judgments and inferences. This means that at the moment it should be clear what components of the reasoning consist of. However, we have not yet touched on the questions of how reasoning as a whole can be organized and what types of reasoning are in principle. This will be the topic of the last lesson. To begin with, reasoning is divided into deductive and plausible. All types of inferences considered in the previous lessons: inferences by a logical square, inversions, syllogisms, entimemes, sorites, are precisely deductive reasoning. Their distinguishing feature is that the premises and conclusions in them are connected by a relationship of strict logical consequence, while in the case of plausible reasoning, such a relationship is absent. First, let's talk more about deductive reasoning.
How to take classes?
The lessons themselves with all the exercises can be completed in 1-3 weeks, having mastered the theoretical material and practicing a little. But for the development of logical thinking, it is important to practice systematically, read a lot and constantly train.
For maximum effect, we recommend that you first simply read the entire material, spending 1-2 evenings on it. Then go through 1 lesson daily, doing the necessary exercises and following the suggested recommendations. After you have mastered all the lessons, practice effective repetition in order to memorize the material for a long time. Next, try to use more often the methods of logical thinking in life, when writing articles, letters, when communicating, in disputes, in business and even at your leisure. Reinforce your knowledge by reading books and textbooks, as well as with the help of additional material, which will be discussed below.
Additional material
In addition to the lessons in this section, we tried to pick up a lot of useful material on the topic under consideration:
- Logical tasks;
- Logical thinking tests;
- Logical games;
- The smartest people in Russia and the world;
- Video tutorials and master classes.
As well as books and textbooks, articles, quotes, auxiliary trainings.
Books and textbooks on logic
On this page, we have selected useful books and textbooks that will help you deepen your knowledge of logic and logical thinking:
- "Applied Logic". Nikolai Nikolaevich Nepeivoda;
- "Textbook of Logic". Georgy Ivanovich Chelpanov;
- "Logic: lecture notes". Dmitry Shadrin;
- "Logics. Training course "(educational-methodical complex). Dmitry Alekseevich Gusev;
- "Logic for Lawyers" (collection of problems). HELL. Getmanova;
- Coursework: Production of asbestos-cement products and characteristics of JSC Belgorodasbestcement Technology of asbestos-cement products
- The state as the main political institution Formation of political institutions
- Material Accounting Inventories Examples
- Examination the specifics of logic as a science The emergence of the term "logic"