Varieties and genres of ancient Russian literature. System of genres of ancient Russian literature
ancient Russian genre story literature
To understand the peculiarity and originality of original Russian literature, to appreciate the courage with which Russian scribes created works that “stand outside genre systems”, such as “The Tale of Igor’s Host”, “Teaching” by Vladimir Monomakh, “Prayer” by Daniil Zatochnik and the like , for all this it is necessary to get acquainted with at least some examples of individual genres of translated literature.
Chronicles. Interest in the past of the Universe, the history of other countries, and the destinies of great people of antiquity was satisfied by translations of Byzantine chronicles. These chronicles began an account of events from the creation of the world, retold biblical history, cited individual episodes from the history of the countries of the East, they talked about the campaigns of Alexander the Great, and then about the history of the countries of the Middle East. Having brought the narrative to the last decades before the beginning of our era, the chroniclers went back and recounted ancient history Rome, starting from the legendary times of the city's founding. The rest and, as a rule, most of the chronicles were occupied by the narrative of the Roman and Byzantine emperors. The chronicles ended with a description of events contemporary to their composition.
Thus, the chroniclers created the impression of the continuity of the historical process, of a kind of “change of kingdoms.” Of the translations of Byzantine chronicles, the most famous in Rus' in the 11th century. received translations of the Chronicles of George Amartol and the Chronicles of John Malala. The first of them, together with the continuation made on Byzantine soil, brought the narrative to the middle of the 10th century, the second - until the time of Emperor Justinian (527-565).
Perhaps one of the defining features of the composition of the chronicles was their desire for an exhaustive completeness of the dynastic series. This feature is characteristic of biblical books (which contain long lists of genealogies), medieval chronicles, and historical epics.
"Alexandria". Enjoyed enormous popularity in Ancient Rus' a novel about Alexander the Great, the so-called "Alexandria". This was not a historically accurate description of the life and deeds of the famous commander, but a typical Hellenistic adventure novel 7.
In "Alexandria" we also encounter action-packed (and also pseudo-historical) collisions. "Alexandria" is an indispensable component of all ancient Russian chronographs; from edition to edition, the adventure and fantasy theme is increasingly intensified in it, which once again indicates an interest in the plot-entertaining, and not the actual historical side of this work.
"The Life of Eustathius Placidas". In ancient Russian literature, imbued with the spirit of historicism and addressed to ideological problems, there was no place for open literary fiction (readers apparently trusted the miracles of “Alexandria” - after all, all this happened a long time ago and somewhere in unknown lands, at the end of the world!), everyday stories or a novel about the private life of a private person. Strange as it may seem at first glance, to a certain extent the need for such subjects was fulfilled by such authoritative and closely related genres as the lives of saints, patericon or apocrypha.
Researchers have long noticed that the lengthy lives of Byzantine saints in some cases were very reminiscent of an ancient novel: sudden changes in the fate of heroes, imaginary death, recognition and meetings after many years of separation, attacks by pirates or predatory animals - all these traditional plot motifs of the adventure novel strangely coexisted in some lives with the idea of glorifying an ascetic or martyr for the Christian faith 8. A typical example of such a life is “The Life of Eustathius Placidas,” translated back in Kievan Rus.
Apocrypha. The apocrypha - legends about biblical characters that were not included in the canonical (recognized by the church) biblical books, discussions on topics that worried medieval readers: about the struggle in the world of good and evil, about the ultimate fate of humanity, descriptions of heaven and hell or unknown lands "at the end of the world."
Most apocrypha are entertaining plot stories, which amazed the imagination of readers either with unknown everyday details about the life of Christ, the apostles, prophets, or with miracles and fantastic visions. The Church tried to fight apocryphal literature. Special lists of prohibited books were compiled - indices. However, in judgments about which works are definitely “renounced books,” that is, unacceptable for reading by true Christians, and which are only apocryphal (literally apocryphal - secret, hidden, that is, designed for a reader experienced in theological matters), the medieval censors did not there was unity.
The indices varied in composition; in collections, sometimes very authoritative, we also find apocryphal texts next to the canonical biblical books and lives. Sometimes, however, even here they were overtaken by the hand of zealots of piety: in some collections the sheets with the text of the apocrypha were torn out or their text was crossed out. Nevertheless, there were a lot of apocryphal works, and they continued to be rewritten throughout the centuries-old history ancient Russian literature.
Patristics. A large place in ancient Russian translated writing was occupied by patristics, that is, the writings of those Roman and Byzantine theologians of the 3rd-7th centuries who enjoyed special authority in the Christian world and were revered as “fathers of the church”: John Chrysostom, Basil the Great, Gregory of Nazianzus, Athanasius of Alexandria and others.
Their works explained the dogmas Christian religion, the Holy Scriptures were interpreted, Christian virtues were affirmed and vices were exposed, and various ideological questions were raised. At the same time, works of both teaching and solemn eloquence had considerable aesthetic significance.
The authors of the solemn words intended for utterance in the church during the service were excellent at creating an atmosphere of festive ecstasy or reverence, which should have gripped the believers when remembering the glorified event of church history, and were fluent in the art of rhetoric, which Byzantine writers inherited from antiquity: By chance, many of the Byzantine theologians studied with pagan rhetoricians.
In Rus', John Chrysostom (died in 407) was especially famous; From words belonging to him or attributed to him, entire collections were compiled, bearing the names “Zlatoust” or “Zlatostruy”.
The language of liturgical books is especially colorful and rich in tropes. Let's give a few examples. In the service menaions (a collection of services in honor of saints, arranged according to the days on which they are venerated) of the 11th century. we read: “The vines of thought appeared as ripening grapes, but you were cast into the winepress of torment; you poured out the wine of tenderness for us.” A literal translation of this phrase would destroy artistic image, therefore, we will only explain the essence of the metaphor.
The saint is compared to a ripe bunch of grapevine, but it is emphasized that this is not a real, but a spiritual (“mental”) vine; the saint subjected to torment is likened to grapes that are pressed in a “press” (pit, vat) in order to “exude” the juice for making wine; the saint’s torment “exudes” the “wine of tenderness” - a feeling of reverence and compassion for him.
A few more metaphorical images from the same service minions of the 11th century: “From the depths of evil, the last one ends the heights of virtue, like an eagle, flying high, gloriously in the east, the most praiseworthy of Matthew!”; “You have strained your prayer bows and arrows and the cruel and slithering serpent, you have slain, O blessed one, having delivered the holy flock from that harm”; “The towering sea of the charming polytheism, you gloriously passed through the storm of divine rule, a quiet refuge for all, being drowned.” “Prayer bows and arrows”, “the storm of polytheism”, which raises waves on the “lovely [treacherous, deceptive] sea” of vain life - all these are metaphors designed for a reader who has developed sense words and sophisticated figurative thinking, excellently versed in traditional Christian symbolism.
And as one can judge from the original works of Russian authors - chroniclers, hagiographers, creators of teachings and solemn words, this high art was fully accepted by them and implemented in their creativity.
Speaking about the system of genres of ancient Russian literature, it is necessary to note one more important circumstance: this literature for a long time, right up to the 17th century, did not allow literary fiction. Old Russian authors wrote and read only about what actually happened: about the history of the world, countries, peoples, about the generals and kings of antiquity, about holy ascetics. Even when conveying outright miracles, they believed that it could have happened, that there were fantastic creatures inhabiting unknown lands, through which Alexander the Great walked with his troops, that in the darkness of caves and cells demons appeared to holy hermits, then tempting them in the form of harlots , then frightening in the guise of animals and monsters.
When talking about historical events, ancient Russian authors could report different, sometimes mutually exclusive versions: some say this, the chronicler or chronicler will say, and others say differently. But this, in their eyes, was just the ignorance of the informants, so to speak, a delusion from ignorance, however, the idea that this or that version could simply be invented, composed, and even more so composed for purely literary purposes - such a thought apparently appealed to older writers seemed implausible. This non-recognition of literary fiction also, in turn, determined the system of genres, the range of subjects and themes to which a work of literature could be devoted. The fictional hero will come to Russian literature relatively late - not earlier than the 15th century, although even at that time he will still masquerade as a hero of a distant country or an ancient time for a long time.
Outright fiction was allowed only in one genre - the genre of the apologist, or parable. It was a miniature story, each of the characters and the entire plot existed only to clearly illustrate an idea. It was an allegory story, and that was its meaning.
In ancient Russian literature, which knew no fiction, historical in large or small ways, the world itself was presented as something eternal, universal, where events and people’s actions are determined by the very system of the universe, where the forces of good and evil are forever fighting, a world whose history is well known ( after all, for each event mentioned in the chronicle, an exact date was indicated - the time elapsed from the “creation of the world”!) and even the future was destined: prophecies about the end of the world, the “second coming” of Christ and the Last Judgment awaiting all people on earth were widespread.
This general ideological attitude could not but affect the desire to subordinate the very image of the world to certain principles and rules, to determine once and for all what should be depicted and how.
Old Russian literature, like other Christian medieval literatures, is subject to a special literary and aesthetic regulation - the so-called literary etiquette.
Genres of Old Russian literature A genre is a historically established type of literary work, an abstract sample on the basis of which specific texts are created literary works. The system of genres of literature of Ancient Rus' differed significantly from the modern one. Old Russian literature developed largely under the influence of Byzantine literature and borrowed from it a system of genres, reworking them on a national basis: the specificity of the genres of Old Russian literature lies in their connection with traditional Russian folk art. The genres of ancient Russian literature are usually divided into primary and unifying. Primary genres These genres are called primary because they served as building material for unifying genres. Primary genres: Life Word Teaching Tale Primary genres also include weather recording, chronicle story, chronicle legend and church legend. Hagiography The genre of hagiography was borrowed from Byzantium. This is the most widespread and beloved genre of ancient Russian literature. Life was an indispensable attribute when a person was canonized, i.e. were canonized. The life was created by people who directly communicated with a person or could reliably testify to his life. Life was always created after the death of a person. It performed a huge educational function, because the life of the saint was perceived as an example of a righteous life that must be imitated. In addition, life deprived a person of the fear of death, preaching the idea of immortality human soul. Life was built according to certain canons, from which they did not deviate until the 15-16 centuries. Canons of the Life The pious origin of the hero of the Life, whose parents must have been righteous. The saint's parents often begged God. A saint was born a saint, not made one. The saint was distinguished by an ascetic lifestyle, spending time in solitude and prayer. A mandatory attribute of the life was a description of the miracles that occurred during the life of the saint and after his death. The saint was not afraid of death. The life ended with the glorification of the saint. One of the first works of the hagiographic genre in ancient Russian literature was the life of the holy princes Boris and Gleb. Old Russian eloquence This genre was borrowed by Old Russian literature from Byzantium, where eloquence was a form of oratory. In ancient Russian literature, eloquence appeared in three varieties: Didactic (instructive) Political Solemn Teaching Teaching is a type of genre of ancient Russian eloquence. Teaching is a genre in which ancient Russian chroniclers tried to present a model of behavior for any ancient Russian man: both for the prince and for the commoner. The most striking example of this genre is the “Teaching of Vladimir Monomakh” included in the Tale of Bygone Years. In the Tale of Bygone Years, the Teachings of Vladimir Monomakh are dated 1096. At this time, the strife between the princes in the battle for the throne reached its climax. In his teaching, Vladimir Monomakh gives advice on how to organize your life. He says that there is no need to seek the salvation of the soul in seclusion. It is necessary to serve God by helping those in need. When going to war, you should pray - God will definitely help. Monomakh confirms these words with an example from his life: he took part in many battles - and God protected him. Monomakh says that one should look at how the natural world works and try to organize social relations according to the model of a harmonious world order. The teaching of Vladimir Monomakh is addressed to descendants. The Word The Word is a type of genre of ancient Russian eloquence. An example of the political variety of ancient Russian eloquence is “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign.” This work is the subject of much controversy regarding its authenticity. This is because the original text of “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” has not been preserved. It was destroyed by fire in 1812. Only copies have survived. From that time on, it became fashionable to refute its authenticity. The word tells about the military campaign of Prince Igor against the Polovtsians, which took place in history in 1185. Researchers suggest that the author of “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” was one of the participants in the described campaign. Disputes about the authenticity of this work were conducted in particular because it stands out from the system of genres of ancient Russian literature due to the unusual nature of the elements used in it. artistic means and techniques. The traditional chronological principle of narration is violated here: the author is transported to the past, then returns to the present (this was not typical for ancient Russian literature), the author makes lyrical digressions, inserted episodes appear (Svyatoslav’s dream, Yaroslavna’s cry). The word contains many elements of traditional oral folk art , characters. One can clearly feel the influence of a fairy tale, an epic. The political background of the work is obvious: in the fight against a common enemy, Russian princes must be united, disunity leads to death and defeat. Another example of political eloquence is the “Word about the Destruction of the Russian Land,” which was created immediately after the Mongol-Tatars came to Rus'. The author glorifies the bright past and mourns the present. An example of the solemn variety of ancient Russian eloquence is the “Sermon on Law and Grace” by Metropolitan Hilarion, which was created in the first third of the 11th century. The word was written by Metropolitan Hilarion on the occasion of the completion of the construction of military fortifications in Kyiv. The word conveys the idea of the political and military independence of Rus' from Byzantium. By “Law” Hilarion understands the Old Testament, which was given to the Jews, but it does not suit the Russian and other peoples. Therefore, God gave the New Testament, which is called “Grace.” In Byzantium, Emperor Constantine is revered, who contributed to the spread and establishment of Christianity there. Hilarion says that Prince Vladimir the Red Sun, who baptized Rus', is no worse than the Byzantine emperor and should also be revered by the Russian people. The work of Prince Vladimir is continued by Yaroslav the Wise. The main idea of “The Word of Law and Grace” is that Rus' is as good as Byzantium. Tale A Tale is a text of an epic nature, telling about princes, military exploits, and princely crimes. Examples of military stories are “The Tale of the Battle of the Kalka River”, “The Tale of the Devastation of Ryazan by Batu Khan”, “The Tale of the Life of Alexander Nevsky”. Unifying genres Primary genres acted as part of unifying genres, such as the chronicle, chronograph, chety-menaion, patericon. A chronicle is a narration of historical events. This is the most ancient genre of ancient Russian literature. In Ancient Rus', the chronicle played a very important role, because not only reported historical events of the past, but was also a political and legal document, testifying to how to act in certain situations. The oldest chronicle is the “Tale of Bygone Years,” which came to us in the lists of the Laurentian Chronicle of the 14th century and the Ipatiev Chronicle of the 15th century. The chronicle tells about the origin of the Russians, the genealogy of the Kyiv princes and the emergence of the ancient Russian state. Chronographs are texts containing a description of the time of the 15th-16th centuries. Chetii-menaia (literally “reading by month”) is a collection of works about holy people. Patericon - a description of the life of the holy fathers. Special mention should be made about the apocrypha genre. Apocrypha - literally translated from ancient Greek as “intimate, secret.” These are works of a religious and legendary nature. Apocrypha became especially popular in the 13th and 14th centuries, but the church did not recognize this genre and does not recognize it to this day. (Source - http://lerotto.com.ua/modules.php?name=Pages&pa=showpage&pid=151) *** Literature of Ancient Rus' General characteristics of the period Old Russian literature went through a long period of development, which amounted to 7 centuries: from the 9th to the 15th centuries. Scientists associate the formation of ancient Russian literature with the adoption of Christianity in Rus' in 988. This year is the starting point for the periodization of literature. It is reliably known that writing existed in Rus' even before the adoption of Christianity. But very few monuments of pre-Christian writing have been discovered. Based on the available monuments, it cannot be said that before the adoption of Christianity, literature and book learning existed in Rus'. The spread of the Christian religion in Rus' involved the study of holy scripture and Christian rituals. To preach Christian canons, it was necessary to translate religious books from ancient Greek and Latin languages into a language that the Slavs understood. The Old Church Slavonic language became such a language. Scientists talk about special status Old Slavonic language. Old Church Slavonic is the literary language of all Slavs. They did not speak it, but only wrote and read books. The Old Church Slavonic language was created by Christian preachers Cyril and Methodius on the basis of the Solunsky dialect of the ancient Bulgarian language specifically in order to make the canons of the Christian religion understandable to the Slavs and to preach these canons in the language of the Slavs. Books in the Old Church Slavonic language were copied in different territories inhabited by the Slavs, where they spoke differently: in different dialects. Gradually, the peculiarities of the speech of the Slavs began to be reflected in writing. Thus, on the basis of the Old Church Slavonic language, the Church Slavonic language arose, reflecting the peculiarities of speech Eastern Slavs , and then the Old Russian man. Christian preachers arrived in Rus' and created schools. The schools taught reading, writing and the canons of Orthodox Christianity. Over time, a layer of people appeared in Rus' who knew how to read and write. They rewrote holy scripture and translated it into Old Church Slavonic. Over time, these people began to record historical events that took place in Rus', make generalizations, use images of oral folk art, and evaluate the events and facts described. This is how original ancient Russian literature gradually took shape. Old Russian literature was fundamentally different from what we are accustomed to understanding as literature at the present time. Literature in Ancient Rus' was closely connected with the spread of the Christian religion and served as a tool for preaching and consolidating Christianity in Rus'. This determined a special attitude towards the book as a sacred object, and towards reading as a sacred process of familiarization with God’s Word. How were ancient Russian books written? Old Russian books were huge tomes, the pages of which were made of cowhide. The books were bound into boards, which were covered with leather and decorated. Cured cowhide was an expensive material that had to be saved. That is why ancient Russian books were written in a special way: in the books there were no intervals between words. Naturally, reading such books was very difficult. In addition, many frequently used words were not written in full. For example, BG - God, BGC - Mother of God, NB - heaven. Above such words they put a “title” sign - an abbreviation. Because of the high cost of the material, books cost entire villages. Only rich princes could afford to have books. The book is a source of Divine grace One of the differences between ancient Russian literature and modern literature is that ancient Russian books do not and could not have had an author. In Ancient Rus', the concept of authorship did not exist at all; it appeared much later. It was believed that God guided the hand of the book writer. Man is only an intermediary through whom God conveys his Word to people. Putting your name in a book was considered a great sin. The belief in this was strong, so for a long time no one dared to put their name in the books. But some could not resist and put an inconspicuous, but so important for them, inscription like “I am a great sinner (name) had a hand in this.” There was a strong belief that the book had a miraculous effect on a person, giving him divine grace. Communicating with a book, ancient Russian people believed that they were communicating with God. That is why it was customary to fast and pray for at least a week before reading books. Historicism of Old Russian Literature Old Russian authors were aware of their special historical mission - the mission of witnesses of time. They believed that they were obliged to record all the events that took place on their land in order to convey history to their descendants through the book. In addition, the texts included many traditions and legends that had oral existence. Thus, in ancient Russian texts, pagan deities are mentioned along with Christian saints. This meant that Christianity existed in Rus' with the original religion of the Slavs, which is usually called paganism, although the pagans themselves did not call themselves that. Folklore significantly enriched ancient Russian literature. There were no lyrics in ancient Russian literature. Old Russian literature, being exclusively religious in nature, placed the preaching of the laws of Christian morality at the forefront. That is why it did not pay any attention to a person’s private life. Maximum objectivity is one of the main canons of ancient Russian literature. Among the genres in ancient Russian literature, the lives of saints, chronicles, chronographs, chety-menaion, patericon, and apocrypha predominated. Old Russian literature was distinguished by religiosity and historicism. Many ancient Russian books have not reached us: they were destroyed by fires, some were taken to Poland and Lithuania, and some were destroyed by the scribes themselves - the old inscriptions were washed off and new ones were written on top. This was done in order to save the expensive material from which the books were made.
Researchers face another problem: a more accurate dating of the monument: within the last decades of the 12th century. The solution to this question depends on how to determine the ideological load of the Lay: did it mean the general, “eternal” question of the fragmentation of Rus', or did the author call for unification in the face of a specific danger.
In its fundamental study, "Words" comes to the second option. He believes that the “Word” is “a real and timely appeal from some Kiev resident to those Russian princes who could and should have saved Southern Rus' from the threat hanging over it in the summer of 1185.” It follows from this that the “Lay” could have been written in 1185, “when the situation was extremely aggravated by external danger and internal discord; it would have been useless in 1186, when nothing was heard about the Polovtsians... We should, he continues, exclude not only the quiet year of 1186, but also the next (last of the possible), 1187, since in “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” there is no call to Vladimir Glebovich of Pereyaslavl, seriously wounded in May-June 1185 And by 1187, Vladimir, being “daring and strong in the army,” felt able to take part in the campaign, but on April 18 he died on the way.” In another work, this is how he presents the circumstances in which the “Word” could have been created and published. According to the scientist, it “probably was composed and performed in Kyiv at the court of the Grand Duke on the occasion of the reception of an unusual guest who needed everyone’s support - Prince Igor, who had just returned from Polovtsian captivity.”
Rybakov's hypothesis traces some weak spots. Researchers have already noted as a dating moment the presence in the Lay of a dialogue between the khans Konchak and Gza about the fate of Igor’s son, Vladimir, who remained in Polovtsian captivity. Konchak says: “A falcon is already flying to its nest, and the falcon is entangled in a red maiden.” Gza, who proposed to shoot the falcon with golden arrows, objects: “If he is entangled with a red maiden, neither the falcon nor the maiden is beautiful, then the birds will begin to beat in the Polovtsian field.” As you know, Vladimir really married Konchak’s daughter. The Ipatiev Chronicle for 1188 reports: “... Volodymer the Polovtsian came with Konchakovna, and Igor performed a wedding for his son and married him with his child,” but could the creator of the “Lay” already in the summer - autumn of 1185 be sure that So will Vladimir’s fate turn out well after his father’s escape from captivity? The Laurentian Chronicle states that after the prince’s escape, the remaining captives “were held firmly and strictly and were punished with many ironclads and executions.”
It turns out that it is based not on the data of the monument itself, but on the style of its writing, on the “passionate journalisticism” of the monument, which determines its association with certain important political events. However, dating based on the same premises turns out to be completely different: gg.
“The artistic characterization of Svyatoslav of Kyiv,” he says, “is different from the characteristics of other living princes. The main method of describing Svyatoslav is epic exaggeration, and in this respect the image of Svyatoslav is very close to such long-dead heroes of the Lay as Vseslav of Polotsk, Oleg Gorislavich, Yaroslav Osmomysl, whose characteristics are complete, are complete (unlike Igor, Vsevolod, Rurik and others).
The hyperbolization of the power of Svyatoslav, which he actually did not possess, resembles the principle of creating posthumous princely praise in the chronicle and seems retrospective,” that is, the “Lay” was written after the death of Svyatoslav of Kiev, who died in July 1194. “The Lay” could not have been written later May 1196 - this month Vsevolod Svyatoslavich, Igor’s brother, died, and at the end of the monument the Bui-Turu toast to Vsevolod is proclaimed.
It assumes that the “Word” is a current appeal to the Russian princes, caused by the events of the years. - the struggle between Rurik Rostislavich, who has now become the prince of Kyiv, and the Olgovichs - Yaroslav of Chernigov, Igor and Vsevolod Svyatoslavich for the Kiev throne. Rurik calls on the Polovtsians for help, and they “rushed towards bloodshed and rejoiced at the fight [quarrel, discord. - O.T.] among the Russian princes.” Naturally, in these years the topic of the harmfulness of princely civil strife in the face of the Polovtsian danger became extremely relevant, and the “Word” is dedicated to this topic.
In a conflict situation, Mr. the author of the Lay, says, also strives to “justify Chernigov princes for the defeat of 1185, to prove their military and moral right to be leaders in princely alliances, for they acted as courageous representatives of Rus' against the “filthy”, they were already “ready for battle”; The time of the successful reign of Clare of one of the Olgovichs - Svyatoslav Vsevolodich, a wise and caring prince, is not so far gone." concludes: we see in the "Tale of Igor's Campaign" a reflection of not only all-Russian, national ideas - the passionate "call of the Russian princes for unity", fight against enemies native land... but we also discover his connections with the specific political situation of the mid-90s of the 12th century, traces of his topical attitude to events and people.”
It should be noted that there has not yet been a dating based on the totality of data, that is, both images and the political situation in Rus'. Usually dating is based on the fact of the mention of Yaroslav Osmomysl (died in 1187), which raises certain doubts, because it dates not the time of creation of the monument, but the time described in the monument.
No less important is the problem of the authorship of the “Tale”: Timofey Raguilovich, Mitusa, Raguil Dobrynich, Belovod Prosovich, Igor himself, proposed for the role of authors, cannot be considered as full-fledged options, because about their literary features and horizons are practically unknown, and in this case this is a necessary component of the analysis.
A more substantiated hypothesis is that of the cautious assumption that the author of the Lay could have been the chronicler Pyotr Borislavich. If the attribution of a number of chronicle fragments to Pyotr Borislavich is correct, then we can judge both his political program and the peculiarities of his language and style. In both, he sees commonality between the chronicler and the author of the Lay. However, the researcher still considers it necessary to summarize his observations as follows: “It cannot be proven beyond doubt that “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” and the chronicle of “Mstislav’s tribe” (meaning the fragments of the Ipatiev Chronicle attributed to Pyotr Borislavich. - O.T.) were really written by one person . It is even more difficult to confirm that this person was precisely the Kiev thousand-man Pyotr Borislavich. Here we will probably forever remain in the realm of hypotheses. But the striking similarity, which sometimes turns into identity, of almost all the features of both works (taking into account the genre differences) does not allow completely discard the idea of one creator of these two equally brilliant creations."
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A genre is a historically established type of literary work, an abstract pattern on the basis of which the texts of specific literary works are created. The system of genres of literature of Ancient Rus' differed significantly from the modern one. Old Russian literature developed largely under the influence of Byzantine literature and borrowed from it a system of genres, reworking them on a national basis: the specificity of the genres of Old Russian literature lies in their connection with traditional Russian folk art. The genres of ancient Russian literature are usually divided into primary and unifying.
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Primary genres These genres are called primary because they served as building material for unifying genres. Primary genres: Life Word Teaching Tale Primary genres also include weather recording, chronicle story, chronicle legend and church legend.
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Hagiography The genre of hagiography was borrowed from Byzantium. This is the most widespread and beloved genre of ancient Russian literature. Life was an indispensable attribute when a person was canonized, i.e. were canonized. The life was created by people who directly communicated with a person or could reliably testify to his life. Life was always created after the death of a person. It performed a huge educational function, because the life of the saint was perceived as an example of a righteous life that must be imitated. In addition, life deprived a person of the fear of death, preaching the idea of the immortality of the human soul. Life was built according to certain canons, from which they did not deviate until the 15-16 centuries.
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Canons of the Life The pious origin of the hero of the Life, whose parents must have been righteous. The saint's parents often begged God. A saint was born a saint, not made one. The saint was distinguished by an ascetic lifestyle, spending time in solitude and prayer. A mandatory attribute of the life was a description of the miracles that occurred during the life of the saint and after his death. The saint was not afraid of death. The life ended with the glorification of the saint. One of the first works of the hagiographic genre in ancient Russian literature was the life of the holy princes Boris and Gleb.
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Old Russian eloquence This genre was borrowed by Old Russian literature from Byzantium, where eloquence was a form of oratory. In ancient Russian literature, eloquence appeared in three varieties: Didactic (instructive) Political Solemn
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Teaching Teaching is a type of genre of ancient Russian eloquence. Teaching is a genre in which ancient Russian chroniclers tried to present a model of behavior for any ancient Russian person: both for the prince and for the commoner. The most striking example of this genre is the “Teaching of Vladimir Monomakh” included in the Tale of Bygone Years. In the Tale of Bygone Years, the Teachings of Vladimir Monomakh are dated 1096. At this time, the strife between the princes in the battle for the throne reached its climax. In his teaching, Vladimir Monomakh gives advice on how to organize your life. He says that there is no need to seek the salvation of the soul in seclusion. It is necessary to serve God by helping those in need. When going to war, you should pray - God will definitely help. Monomakh confirms these words with an example from his life: he took part in many battles - and God protected him. Monomakh says that one should look at how the natural world works and try to organize social relations according to the model of a harmonious world order. The teaching of Vladimir Monomakh is addressed to descendants.
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The Word The Word is a type of genre of ancient Russian eloquence. An example of the political variety of ancient Russian eloquence is “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign.” This work is the subject of much controversy regarding its authenticity. This is because the original text of “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” has not been preserved. It was destroyed by fire in 1812. Only copies have survived. From that time on, it became fashionable to refute its authenticity. The word tells about the military campaign of Prince Igor against the Polovtsians, which took place in history in 1185. Researchers suggest that the author of “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” was one of the participants in the described campaign. Disputes about the authenticity of this work were conducted in particular because it stands out from the system of genres of ancient Russian literature due to the unusualness of the artistic means and techniques used in it. The traditional chronological principle of narration is violated here: the author is transported to the past, then returns to the present (this was not typical for ancient Russian literature), the author makes lyrical digressions, inserted episodes appear (Svyatoslav’s dream, Yaroslavna’s cry). The word contains a lot of elements of traditional oral folk art and symbols. One can clearly feel the influence of a fairy tale, an epic. The political background of the work is obvious: in the fight against a common enemy, Russian princes must be united, disunity leads to death and defeat.
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An example of the solemn variety of ancient Russian eloquence is the “Sermon on Law and Grace” by Metropolitan Hilarion, which was created in the first third of the 11th century. The word was written by Metropolitan Hilarion on the occasion of the completion of the construction of military fortifications in Kyiv. The word conveys the idea of the political and military independence of Rus' from Byzantium. By “Law” Hilarion understands the Old Testament, which was given to the Jews, but it does not suit the Russian and other peoples. Therefore, God gave the New Testament, which is called “Grace.” In Byzantium, Emperor Constantine is revered, who contributed to the spread and establishment of Christianity there. Hilarion says that Prince Vladimir the Red Sun, who baptized Rus', is no worse than the Byzantine emperor and should also be revered by the Russian people. The work of Prince Vladimir is continued by Yaroslav the Wise. The main idea of “The Word of Law and Grace” is that Rus' is as good as Byzantium.
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Tale A Tale is a text of an epic nature, telling about princes, military exploits, and princely crimes. Examples of military stories are “The Tale of the Battle of the Kalka River”, “The Tale of the Devastation of Ryazan by Batu Khan”, “The Tale of the Life of Alexander Nevsky”.
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Unifying genres Primary genres acted as part of unifying genres, such as the chronicle, chronograph, chety-menaion, patericon.
Old Russian literature began to take shape after the adoption of Christianity and at first was supposed to introduce the history of religion and contribute to its dissemination. Another important function at this stage was to educate readers in the spirit of Christian commandments. For this reason, the first works (Old Russian literature covers the period from the 11th to the 17th centuries) were mainly of an ecclesiastical nature. Gradually, life stories became increasingly popular ordinary people, which contributed to the emergence and then increasing spread of “secular” works. Under the influence of these factors, the main genres of ancient Russian literature were formed. All of them, until the 15th century, were united by a common approach to the events depicted: historical background did not allow the author's fiction.
Features of genre formation
There is an opinion that the literature of Ancient Rus' came out of Byzantine and Bulgarian literature. This statement is partly legitimate, since the system of genres among all these peoples actually has a certain similarity. However, one must keep in mind that the states at that moment were at different stages of development (Rus was significantly behind Byzantium and Bulgaria), and the authors faced different tasks. Therefore, it would be more correct to say that ancient Russian literature adopted the existing experience of the West. It was formed based on folklore and the needs of society. The genres of Old Russian literature were specified depending on the practical purpose and were divided into primary and unifying. In general, they represented a dynamic system that responded vividly to any changes in society.
Primary genres of ancient Russian literature
These included a life, a teaching, a word, a story, a chronicle story or legend, a weather record, and a church legend. The first four are the most famous.
A hagiography is a work containing a story about the lives of saints. It was perceived as a model of morality that should be imitated, and was built according to certain canons. The classical hagiography contained the story of birth (usually a begged child) and pious life, a description of miracles associated with the hero, and glorification of the saint. One of famous works This genre was “The Life of Saints Gleb and Boris,” written in a harsh time for the country. The images of the princes were supposed to contribute to unification in a common fight against the invaders.
A later version was “The Life of Archpriest Avvakum, written by himself.” Seen more as a variant of autobiography, it is interesting because it presents a picture public life during the schism of the church.
Genres of Old Russian literature also include teachings that contained rules of human behavior regardless of his position. They had a powerful educational impact on the reader and touched on various areas of life. The most famous teaching was compiled by Vladimir Monomakh and addressed to the youth. Its content is fully consistent Christian commandments, therefore it was perceived as a book of life for posterity.
Old Russian eloquence was fully manifested in such a genre as the word. It could have different directions. An example of a solemn work is “The Sermon on Law and Grace” by Metropolitan Hilarion, written at the beginning of the 11th century in connection with the construction of military fortifications in Kyiv. This is the glorification of Russian princes and the Russian state, which are in no way inferior to the powerful Byzantium and its rulers.
The pinnacle of this genre was the work about the campaign of the Russian prince against the Polovtsians.
"The Tale of Igor's Campaign"
Despite the ongoing controversy regarding the authenticity and authorship of this work, it was absolutely innovative for its time. Any genres of ancient Russian literature, as already noted, had certain canons. “The Word...” is significantly different from them. It includes lyrical digressions, a violation of chronology in the narrative (the action is either transferred to the past or directed to the present), and inserted elements. The means of representation are also unconventional, many of which are correlated with elements of folklore. Many researchers put “The Word…” on a par with early feudal epic works different nations. In essence, this is a poem about the courage and perseverance of soldiers, an expression of grief for the dead, a call for the need to unite all Russian princes and lands. In addition, “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” allows us to evaluate the place and role of the state in international history.
Uniting
There are also unifying genres of ancient Russian literature. All readers are familiar with examples of the chronicle. This also includes chety-menaion (“reading by month”, included stories about saints), a chronograph (description of events of the 15th and 16th centuries) and a patericon (about the life of the holy fathers). These genres are called unifying (introduced by D. S. Likhachev), since they can include life, teaching, speech, etc.
Chronicle
The greatest attention, of course, deserves works in which a record was kept of the events that took place over the years, which could be of a general nature or be more specific: with details, dialogues, etc.
The chronicle as a genre of ancient Russian literature began to take shape presumably already at the end of the 10th century. But the actual work of this genre took shape under Yaroslav the Wise.
At the beginning of the 12th century, based on the available records, the monk Nestor, who lived in the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery, compiled the “Tale of Bygone Years.” Its events cover a long period: from the origin of the Slavic tribes to the present. A laconic and expressive description allows, after several centuries, to present the history of the formation and development of the Russian state.
Tale
This genre of ancient Russian literature was based on translations of Byzantine and folklore works and is the most studied to date. The stories were divided into:
- military - in the center historical figure and an important battle (“The Tale of the Battle of the Kalka River”);
- satirical - about socially significant problems, often in the nature of parodies (“The Tale of Shemyakin’s Court”);
- household - (“The Tale of Woe-Misfortune”).
The pinnacle was “The Tale of Peter and Fevronia of Murom,” which is called the hymn of fidelity and love.
Walkings (or walks) were also popular in Rus', first telling about the journeys of pilgrims to the holy land (“The Walking of Hegumen Daniel”), and later, in connection with the development of trade, about the trips of merchants. This was a story about what was seen with my own eyes.
Created by the 17th century, the system included various genres Old Russian literature marked the transition to modern literature.
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