A short message on the topic of the first humanists. Famous humanists
An outstanding humanist of the early modern era was Erasmus of Rotterdam, scientist, philologist, theologian. He created a harmonious system of new theology, which he called the “philosophy of Christ”. In this system, the main focus is on man in his relationship to God, their moral obligations of man to God. The humanist considered such problems as the creation of the world and the trinity of God to be insoluble and not of vital importance.
Humanists include French writer Francois Rabelais, author of the book “Gargantua and Pantagruel”, which reflected the essence of the development of humanistic thought, hope, victory and the time of the Kenyan humanists. In the first books there is more gaiety, the belief in the victory of the reasonable and good in people’s lives dominates everything, but in the subsequent books there is more tragedy.
Another great humanist writer was William Shakespeare, great English playwright. The main principle of his works was the truth of feelings.
Spanish humanist writer Miguel Cervantes became an author immortal work Don Quixote. Cervantes's hero lives in illusions and tries to resurrect the golden age of chivalry.
The writer colorfully describes how Don Quixote's dreams are shattered by reality,
Thomas More is an outstanding English humanist thinker. He created a treatise on the ideal state. More describes the fabulous island of Utopia, where they live happy people who renounced property, money and wars. In Utopia, More substantiated a number of democratic requirements for the organization of the state. Utopians are free to choose a craft or other occupation. But people are obliged to work wherever they live for more than one day.
According to the teachings of the English philosopher John Locke man, age is a social being. Locke speaks of the “natural” state of man. This state is not self-will, but a duty to restrain oneself and not cause harm to other people. A person has the right to property. At the same time, the right to land and consumption of labor products often gives rise to conflicts, and therefore it is the subject of a special agreement between people. The supreme power, according to John Locke, cannot deprive a person of any part of his property if the latter does not agree. Locke laid the foundation for the idea of separation of civil society and the state.
ʼʼTitans of the Renaissance*.
The culture of the Renaissance is distinguished by its extreme richness and diversity of content. Creators of culture of that time - scientists, artists, writers - were versatile people. It is no coincidence that they are called titans, as ancient Greek deities who personified powerful forces
Italian Leonardo da Vinci became famous as a painter, author greatest works. Portrait Mona Lisa (La Gioconda) embodied the idea of the people of the Renaissance about high value human personality. In the field of mechanics, Leonardo made the first attempts to determine the coefficients of friction and slip. He owns numerous designs for weaving looms, printing machines, etc. The designs of aircraft and the parachute project were innovative. He studied astronomy, optics, biology, and botany. Leonardo's anatomical drawings are images that allow us to judge the general patterns of the structure of the body.
Contemporary of Leonardo da Vinci Michelangelo Buonarroti was a sculptor, painter, architect and poet. The period of creative maturity of the great sculptor is opened statue D" 1" view And Madonna statue. The pinnacle of Michelangelo's creativity as a painter was painting of the vault of the Sistine Chapel in Rome, which embodied his ideas about life and its contradictory Michelangelo supervised the construction St. Cathedral Peter's in Rome. Painter and architect Rafael Santi glorified the earthly happiness of man, the harmony of his fully developed spiritual and physical properties. The images of Raphael's Madonnas masterfully reflect the seriousness of thoughts and experiences. The artist's most famous painting is the Sistine Madonna.
Spanish artist El Greca adopted the traditions of Byzantine art. His paintings stand out for their deep psychological characteristics of the characters. Another Spanish painting, Diego Velasquez, in his works he depicted true scenes from folk life, in dark colors and characterized by harsh writing. The artist’s religious paintings are characterized by nationalism and realism of types.
The largest representative of the German Renaissance is the artist Albrecht Durer.
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He was looking for new means of expression that met the requirements of a humanistic worldview. Dürer also studied architecture, mathematics and mechanics.
The famous Dutch painter, draftsman and engraver is Pieter Bruegel the Elder. His work most fully reflected the life and mood of the masses. In his engravings and drawings of a satirical and everyday nature, in genre and religious paintings, the artist spoke out against social injustice.
Later in the Netherlands he worked greatest artist Rembrandt Harmens van Rijn, master of portraiture, paintings on biblical and mythological themes. The highest skill allowed the artist to create paintings in which the light seemed to come from within the people and objects depicted.
“Humanism is a special phenomenon in the spiritual life of the Renaissance. The meaning of this term in the Renaissance was fundamentally different than in the modern era, where “humanism” is close to “humanity” - “philanthropy”.
In the XIV-XV centuries, the division of sciences into “divine sciences” (studia divina) and “human sciences (humanities)” (studia humana) was accepted, and the latter usually included grammar, rhetoric, literature and poetry, history and ethics. Humanists were called educated people who knew these sciences especially well.
Since the second half of the 14th century, special importance has been attached to classical (ancient Greek and Roman-Latin) literature. Greek and Latin writers began to be considered the true teachers of humanity, and their authority was especially high Virgil(in The Divine Comedy he serves Dante guide to Hell and Purgatory) and Cicero. Symptomatic in this sense is the thesis of one of the humanists, Hermolai the Barbarian (1453-1493): “I recognize only two masters: Christ and literature.”
The first humanist is considered Petrarch (1304-1374). […]
The focus of humanists is on man, but not as a “vessel of sin” (which was typical of the Middle Ages), but as God’s most perfect creation, created in the “image of God.” Man, like God, is a creator, and this is his highest purpose.
The treatise can be considered programmatic in this sense Gianozzo Manetti(1396-1459) “On the Dignity and Superiority of Man,” which opened a long discussion about the “dignity of man.” One of the most important ideas of the humanists was that a person should be assessed not by his nobility or wealth, not by the merits of his ancestors, but only by what he himself has achieved. A high assessment of the personality and the individual inevitably led to individualism.
The greatest Italian humanists include Lorenzo Vallo(1407-1457). Analyzing the texts, he proved the falsity of the so-called “Donation of Constantine” - the alleged will of the emperor Constantine(III century), who left the Roman Empire as a legacy to the Roman bishops (popes). On this “document,” which actually appeared only in the 8th century, the papacy’s claims to secular power were based.
In his philosophical views Lorenzo Vallo was close to Epicureanism. In the treatise “On pleasure as true good“He proceeds from the pantheistic thesis about the identity of Nature and God. Divine nature cannot be the source of evil, but the desire for pleasure lies in human nature, it is a requirement of nature. This means that no sensual pleasures are immoral. Lorenzo Vallo was an individualist: he believed that the interests of other people should be taken into account only insofar as they are related to personal pleasures.
The largest representative of the humanism of the Northern Renaissance - Desiderius Erasmus(1467-1536), nicknamed Rotterdam after his place of birth. He considered himself a student of Lorenzo Vallo, was a friend Thomas More and other humanists. He knew ancient languages well and did a lot of critical analysis of ancient and biblical texts. His influence and authority throughout Europe were exceptional. Particularly famous was his work “In Praise of Stupidity,” which ridiculed various vices of people (including the clergy), and above all ignorance.
He associated the improvement of people's living conditions with the spread of education. Erasmus of Rotterdam mercilessly criticized scholasticism and the scholastics, but did not offer his own philosophical teachings.
The French philosopher occupies a special place in the culture and philosophy of the Northern Renaissance Michel Montaigne(1533-1592). For him, skepticism became the banner of the fight against medieval dogmatism. He believed that to philosophize means to doubt. In his ethical views he was close to Epicureanism.”
Grinenko G.V., History of Philosophy, M., “Yurait-Izdat”, 2007, p. 249-251.
The main source of artistic power of Russian classical literature is its close connection with the people; Russian literature saw the main meaning of its existence in serving the people. “To burn the hearts of people with a verb” called on the poets A.S. Pushkin. M.Yu. Lermontov wrote that the mighty words of poetry should sound
...like a bell on the veche tower
On days of national celebrations and troubles.
N.A. gave his lyre to the struggle for the happiness of the people, for their liberation from slavery and poverty. Nekrasov. The work of brilliant writers - Gogol and Saltykov-Shchedrin, Turgenev and Tolstoy, Dostoevsky and Chekhov - despite all the differences in artistic form and ideological content of their works, is united by a deep connection with the life of the people, a truthful portrayal of reality, and a sincere desire to serve the happiness of the homeland. The great Russian writers did not recognize “art for art’s sake”; they were heralds of socially active art, art for the people. Revealing the moral greatness and spiritual wealth of the working people, they awakened the reader's sympathy ordinary people, faith in the strength of the people, their future.
Since the 18th century, Russian literature has waged a passionate struggle for the liberation of the people from the oppression of serfdom and autocracy.
This is Radishchev, who depicted the autocratic system of the era as “a monster, mischievous, huge, grinning and barking.”
This is Fonvizin, who brought to shame the rude serf-owners like the Prostakovs and Skotinins.
This is Pushkin, who considered the most important merit that in “his cruel age he glorified freedom.”
This is Lermontov, who was exiled by the government to the Caucasus and found his premature death there.
There is no need to list all the names of Russian writers to prove the loyalty of our classical literature to the ideals of freedom.
Along with the severity of the social problems that characterize Russian literature, it is necessary to point out the depth and breadth of its formulation of moral problems.
Russian literature has always tried to awaken “good feelings” in the reader and protested against any injustice. Pushkin and Gogol first raised their voices in defense of the “little man,” the humble worker; after them, Grigorovich, Turgenev, Dostoevsky took under the protection of the “humiliated and insulted”. Nekrasov. Tolstoy, Korolenko.
At the same time, in Russian literature there was a growing awareness that “ small man“should not be a passive object of pity, but a conscious fighter for human dignity. This idea was especially evident in satirical works Saltykov-Shchedrin and Chekhov, who condemned any manifestation of obedience and servility.
A large place in Russian classical literature is given to moral problems. With all the diversity of interpretation of the moral ideal by various writers, it is easy to notice that for all goodies Russian literature is characterized by dissatisfaction with the existing situation, a tireless search for truth, an aversion to vulgarity, a desire to actively participate in public life, readiness for self-sacrifice. These features make the heroes of Russian literature significantly different from the heroes of Western literature, whose actions are mostly guided by the pursuit of personal happiness, a career, and enrichment. Heroes of Russian literature, as a rule, cannot imagine personal happiness without the happiness of their homeland and people.
Russian writers asserted their bright ideals above all artistic images people with warm hearts, inquisitive minds, rich souls (Chatsky, Tatyana Larina, Rudin, Katerina Kabanova, Andrei Bolkonsky, etc.)
While truthfully covering Russian reality, Russian writers did not lose faith in the bright future of their homeland. They believed that the Russian people would “pave a wide, clear path for themselves...”
In the 7th grade, history as a subject was revealed to you from a new side, because by studying the 15th century, you learned not only about various wars and the internal development of the economy of states, but also the development of human thought, awakening interest in knowing nature and yourself.
Development of humanism
Humanism is a system of views on the surrounding reality, at the center of which is a person who is interested in the work of the laws by which he works the world. The main object of study is human feelings.
In short, with the entry of Europe into the Renaissance, people began to develop humanistic views of the world. The Italian Vittorino de Feltre was the first to speak about the importance of humanism in the education of future generations. He created a children's school, where classes were held in the open air and which was accessible to children of all classes.
Another model for teaching children was proposed by Erasmus of Rotterdam. In his treatise “On the Decency of Children’s Morals,” he outlined his thoughts that during a conversation it is considered bad form to scratch your nose, yawn, and raise your eyebrows. The rules he formed formed the basis of modern rules of communication between people.
Rice. 1. Erasmus of Rotterdam.
Criticism of everyday things became characteristic of the Renaissance. Humanists looked at the world differently. The desire to get an education has become widespread, and people who provide knowledge have begun to be respected.
Great Humanists of Europe
Many famous scientists of the 15th-17th centuries were humanists. They wrote many works, information about which will be reflected in the table Great Humanists of Europe.
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Rice. 2. Thomas More.
Thomas More, in his “Golden Book,” which also has a second name, “Utopia,” described in detail the model of an ideal state, which is located on an island and has 54 cities (like in England). The state is headed by a monarch, limited by the constitution, and all important issues are decided by the People's Assembly.
Rice. 3. Gargantua and Pantagruel.
What humanists had in common was the awakening in a person of a desire to benefit people and abandon a purposeless existence. Many of them expressed ideas about building an ideal state and the transition to an ideal social system. These ideas will be picked up and developed by socialists in the future.
“We must strive not to win battles or conquer lands, to reign or accumulate wealth, but to restore order and establish peace in ordinary life circumstances,” Montaigne wrote in his writings.
What have we learned?
The emergence of great humanists in Europe led to the formation of new ideological ideas that changed medieval society, shaping the man of the New Age.
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Humanism, which marked new era in development human society called the Renaissance. in those days she was under a heavy burden of church prejudices, every free thought was cruelly suppressed. It was at that time that a philosophical teaching arose in Florence, forcing us to look at the crown of God’s creation in a new way.
Renaissance humanism is a set of teachings that represent a thinking person who knows how not only to go with the flow, but also the ability to resist and act independently. Its main focus is interest in each individual, faith in his spiritual and physical capabilities. It was the humanism of the Renaissance that proclaimed different principles for the formation of personality. Man in this teaching is presented as a creator; he is individual and not passive in his thoughts and actions.
The new philosophical direction took ancient culture, art and literature as a basis, focusing on the spiritual essence of man. In the Middle Ages, science and culture were the prerogative of the church, which was very reluctant to share its accumulated knowledge and achievements. Renaissance humanism lifted this veil. First in Italy, and then gradually throughout Europe, universities began to be formed, in which, along with theosophical sciences, they began to study secular subjects: mathematics, anatomy, music and humanities.
The most famous humanists are: Dante Alighieri, Giovanni Boccaccio, Francesco Petrarca, Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael Santi and Michelangelo Buanarrotti. England gave the world such giants as William Shakespeare and Francis Bacon. France and Spain gave Miguel de Cervantes, and Germany gave Albrecht Dürer and Ulrich von Hutten. All these great scientists, educators, and artists forever changed the worldview and consciousness of people and showed a reasonable person, beautiful in soul and thinking. It is to them that all subsequent generations are indebted for the gift of the opportunity to look at the world differently.
Humanism in the Renaissance put the virtues that a person possesses at the forefront of everything and demonstrated the possibility of their development in a person (on their own or with the participation of mentors).
Anthropocentrism differs from humanism in that man, according to this trend, is the center of the universe, and everything that is located around should serve him. Many Christians, armed with this teaching, proclaimed man to be the highest creature, while at the same time placing on him the greatest burden of responsibility. Anthropocentrism and humanism of the Renaissance differ very significantly from each other, so you need to be able to clearly distinguish between these concepts. An anthropocentrist is a person who is a consumer. He believes that everyone owes him something, he justifies exploitation and does not think about the destruction of living nature. Its main principle is the following: a person has the right to live the way he wants, and the rest of the world is obliged to serve him.
Anthropocentrism and humanism of the Renaissance were later used by many philosophers and scientists, such as Descartes, Leibniz, Locke, Hobbes and others. These two definitions have been repeatedly taken as a basis in various schools and movements. The most significant, of course, for all subsequent generations was humanism, which in the Renaissance sowed the seeds of goodness, enlightenment and reason, which we still, several centuries later, consider the most important for Homo sapiens. We, descendants, today enjoy the great achievements of literature and art of the Renaissance, and modern science is based on many teachings and discoveries that originated in the 14th century and still exist. Renaissance humanism tried to teach him to respect himself and others, and our task is to be able to preserve and enhance its best principles.