Research work "The image of the" little man "in Russian literature. The image of the "little man" in Russian literature Little man in Russian literature of the 20th century

In 1913, the 20-year-old poet-futurist V. Mayakovsky, at a public debate on the latest Russian literature, made a lecture entitled "He Who Came By Himself." The title of his report clearly echoed the title of D. Merezhkovsky's book "The Coming Ham", which sounded a formidable evidence-based warning about a new person entering the historical arena in Russia.

However, the futurist poet V. Mayakovsky not only was not afraid of this new man, he joyfully greeted his imminent arrival.

V. Mayakovsky, as a true futurist, pinned his hopes for the future precisely with the revolution. Calling himself her forerunner, he almost identifies himself with the coming man of the new era. He is even ready to become his voice, because the coming new person does not have it yet.

But in reality, the new person turned out to be not with everything the way D. Merezhkovsky wrote about him, and not the same as V. Mayakovsky imagined him to be. The palm in the artistic research of this hero of modern times belongs to A. Platonov, M. Zoshchenko, M. Bulgakov.

The new man had in Russian literature his predecessors in the form artistic images in the works of N. Gogol, N. Leskov, F. Dostoevsky, A. Chekhov. He was a downtrodden and forgotten "little man" who, over many decades, grew up in self-conceit and finally matured for such a grand protest, which was capable of destroying the "whole world of violence".

One of them, undoubtedly, is Captain Lebyadkin from Dostoevsky's novel The Demons. He is known to love to compose. But his lyrical self-expression always has an exclusively utilitarian purpose. Captain Lebyadkin speaks directly about what he wants. For example, like this: "I wish you marital and lawful pleasures!" In more general form his philosophy of life is expressed in the following famous phrase: "Spit on everything and triumph!"

The students and followers of Captain Lebyadkin took over from him not only his artistic methods and original mentality, but also the picture of the universe, in which there was no place for God, not a devil, or eternity, or reason, or meaning.

Very soon the former "little man" realized his new privileged position and, following Captain Lebyadkin, declared his right to "lawful delights." “Give me comfort. I, comrades, want to live no worse than the gentlemen lived, ”the new man demands through the mouth of V. Mayakovsky, and he wants to live“ near the sunniest prominences ”. Material from the site

The "little man" of Russian literature of the 19th century entered the historical stage with the dream of crushing the accursed old world and building a new world based on equality and justice. But the years passed, and the former "little man" never realized his dream. He built powerful factories and plants, power plants, turned the age-old taiga into a desert and erected oases in the middle of the desert, reversed great rivers and conquered space. He changed the world around him, but he himself did not change internally. Over time, only material needs grew in him. And today, after so many years, he can quite calmly say: "Well, through this I can just overstep." And he will overstep without a twinge of conscience. And as long as he is like that, as long as he is capable of such actions, our life will not change for the better. We will forever trail in the tail of civilization, dreaming of how to catch up and overtake America.

"Little man" "Little man" is a type of literary hero that arose in Russian literature with the advent of realism, that is, in the 20-30s of the 19th century. A small person is a person of low social status and origin, not gifted with outstanding abilities, not distinguished by strength of character, but at the same time kind, doing no harm to anyone, harmless.

The power of the tragedy of small people was correctly defined by P. Weil: “The little man from the great Russian literature is so small that he cannot be further reduced. Changes could only go upward. This is what the Western followers of our classical tradition have done. Soviet culture threw off Bashmachkin's greatcoat - on the shoulders of a living Little Man, who of course did not go anywhere, just got off the ideological surface, died in literature. " First way little man became Samson Vyrin from the story of A.S. Pushkin " Stationmaster". Pushkin's traditions are continued by N.V. Gogol in the story "The Overcoat". Both Pushkin and Gogol, creating the image of a little man, wanted to remind readers accustomed to admire romantic heroes that the most ordinary person is also a person worthy of sympathy, attention, support. The topic of the little man is also addressed by writers late XIX and the beginning of the XX century: A. Chekhov, M. Gorky, L. Andreev, F. Sologub, A. Averchenko, K. Trenev, I. Shmelev, S. Yushkevich. The first image of the little man was Samson Vyrin from the story of A.S. Pushkin's "Stationmaster". Pushkin's traditions are continued by N.V. Gogol in the story "The Overcoat". Both Pushkin and Gogol, creating the image of a little man, wanted to remind readers who are used to admiring romantic heroes that the most ordinary person is also a person worthy of sympathy, attention, and support. Writers of the late 19th and early 20th centuries also address the topic of the little man: A. Chekhov, M. Gorky, L. Andreev, F. Sologub, A. Averchenko, K. Trenev, I. Shmelev, S. Yushkevich.

Heroes stand out from the multifaceted literary gallery of "little people": those who strive to gain universal respect by changing their material status or appearance ("Luka Prokhorovich" - E. Grebenki; "Overcoat" - N. Gogol); gripped by the fear of life ("A Man in a Case" - A. Chekhov; "Our Man in a Case" - V. Petsukha); who, in conditions of overwhelming bureaucratic reality, fall ill with mental disorders ("The Double" - F. Dostoevsky; "The Devil" - M. Bulgakov); in whom an internal protest against social contradictions coexists with a painful desire to exalt themselves, to acquire wealth, which ultimately leads them to a loss of reason ("Notes of a Madman" - N. Gogol; "Double" by F. Dostoevsky); whose fear of the authorities leads to madness or death ("Weak Heart" - Dostoevsky, "Death of an Official" - A. Chekhov); who, fearing subjecting themselves to criticism, change their behavior and thoughts ("Chameleon" - A. Chekhova; "Merry Oysters" - A. Averchenko); who can find happiness only in love for a woman ("Old Man's Sin" - A. Pisemsky; "Mountains" - E. Popova); who want to change their lives by using magical means ("The Right Medicine" - E. Grebenki; "Little Man" - F. Sologuba); who, because of failures in life, decide to commit suicide ("Senile Sin" - A. Pisemsky; "Story about Sergei Petrovich" - L. Andreev)

What is a little man? What is a little man? Small in what sense? This person is small in social terms, since he occupies one of the lower rungs of the hierarchical ladder. His place in society is little or no noticeable. This little man is also because the world of his spiritual life and human claims is also extremely narrowed, impoverished, surrounded by all sorts of prohibitions and taboos. For him, for example, there are no historical and philosophical problems. He is in a narrow and closed circle of his vital interests.

Gogol characterizes the protagonist of his story as a poor, ordinary, insignificant and inconspicuous person. In life, he is assigned the insignificant role of a copyist of department documents. Brought up in an atmosphere of unquestioning obedience and execution of orders from his superiors, Akaki Akakievich Bashmachkin was not used to thinking about the content and meaning of his work. That is why, when he is offered tasks that require the manifestation of elementary ingenuity, he begins to worry, worry, and in the end comes to the conclusion: No, better let me rewrite something.

Bashmachkin's spiritual life is consonant with his inner aspirations. Collecting money for the purchase of an overcoat becomes for him the goal and meaning of life, filling it with happiness, waiting for the fulfillment of his cherished desire. The theft of an overcoat, acquired through such great hardship and suffering, becomes for him a truly catastrophe. The people around only laughed at his misfortune, but no one helped him. A significant face yelled at him so that the poor man passed out. Almost no one noticed the death of Akaki Akakievich, which followed soon after his illness.

Despite the uniqueness of the image of Bashmachkin created by Gogol, he does not look lonely in the mind of the reader, and we imagine that there were a great many of the same small, humiliated people who shared the lot of Akaki Akakievich. This generalization of the image of the little man reflected the genius of the writer, who satirically presented society itself, which generates arbitrariness and violence. In this environment, the cruelty and indifference of people to each other is increasing more and more.

Gogol was one of the first to speak openly and loudly about the tragedy of a little man, respect for whom depended not on his spiritual qualities, not on education and intelligence, but on his position in society. The writer compassionately showed the injustice and despotism of society towards the little man and for the first time urged him to pay attention to these inconspicuous, pitiful and ridiculous, as it seemed at first glance, people. Gogol was one of the first to speak openly and loudly about the tragedy of a little man, respect for whom depended not on his spiritual qualities, not on education and intelligence, but on his position in society. The writer compassionately showed the injustice and despotism of society towards the little man and for the first time urged him to pay attention to these inconspicuous, pitiful and ridiculous, as it seemed at first glance, people. There can be no close relationship between us. Judging by the buttons of your uniform, you must serve in a different department. This is how, by the buttons of the uniform, by other external signs, the attitude towards a person is determined immediately and forever. This is how the human personality is trampled. She loses dignity, because a person not only evaluates others according to wealth and nobility, but also himself.

Gogol called on society to look at the little man with understanding and pity. Mother, save your poor son! the author will write. Indeed, some of Akaky Akakievich's offenders suddenly realized this and began to experience pangs of conscience. One young employee, who, like everyone else, decided to play a trick on Bashmachkin, stopped, amazed by his words: Leave me, why are you offending me? And the young man shuddered, seeing how much inhumanness in a person, how much ferocious rudeness is hidden ... Gogol called on society to look at the little man with understanding and pity. Mother, save your poor son! the author will write. Indeed, some of Akaky Akakievich's offenders suddenly realized this and began to experience pangs of conscience. One young employee, who, like everyone else, decided to play a trick on Bashmachkin, stopped, amazed by his words: Leave me, why are you offending me? And the young man shuddered, seeing how much inhumanness in a person, how much fierce rudeness is hidden ...

Appealing to justice, the author raises the question of the need to punish the inhumanity of society. As revenge and compensation for the humiliation and insults suffered during his lifetime, Akaki Akakievich, who rose from the grave in the epilogue, is a passer-by and takes away their greatcoats and fur coats. He calms down only when he takes the greatcoat from a significant person who played a tragic role in the life of a little official.

The meaning of the fantastic episode of the resurrection of Akaki Akakievich and his meeting with significant person lies in the fact that even in the life of a seemingly insignificant person himself, there are moments when he can become a person in the highest sense of the word. Tearing off his greatcoat from a dignified face, Bashmachkin becomes in his own eyes and in the eyes of millions of people like him, humiliated and insulted people, a hero, capable of standing up for himself and responding to the inhumanity and injustice of the world around him. In this form, the little man's revenge to bureaucratic Petersburg was expressed.

A talented image in poetry, literature, as well as in other forms of art, the life of a little person opened up for wide range readers and viewers of the simple, but close to them truth that the life and twists of the souls of ordinary people are no less interesting than the life of outstanding personalities. Penetrating into this life, Gogol and his followers, in turn, discovered new facets of the human character and the spiritual world person. The democratization of the artist's approach to the reality depicted led to the fact that the heroes he created at critical moments of their lives could become on a par with the most significant personalities.

Emphasizing the typicality of the little man's fate, Gogol says that his death did not change anything in the department, Bashmachkin's place was simply taken by another official. In his story N.V. Gogol concentrated his main attention on the fate of the personality of the little man, but this was done with such skill and insight that, empathizing with Bashmachkin, the reader involuntarily thinks about his attitude to the whole world around him, and first of all about the sense of dignity and respect that should call every person, regardless of his social and financial situation, but only taking into account his personal qualities and merits.

"Small man"- a type of literary hero that arose in Russian literature with the advent of realism, that is, in the 20-30s of the XIX century.

The theme of the "little man" is one of the cross-cutting themes of Russian literature, which was constantly addressed by the writers of the 19th century. A.S. Pushkin was the first to touch upon it in the story "The Station Keeper". The successors of this theme were N.V. Gogol, F.M. Dostoevsky, A.P. Chekhov and many others.

This person is small in social terms, since he occupies one of the lower rungs of the hierarchical ladder. His place in society is little or completely invisible. A person is considered "small" also because the world of his spiritual life and claims is also extremely narrow, impoverished, filled with all kinds of prohibitions. There are no historical and philosophical problems for him. He is in a narrow and closed circle of his vital interests.

The best humanistic traditions are associated with the theme of the "little man" in Russian literature. Writers invite people to think about the fact that everyone has the right to happiness, on their own outlook on life.

Examples of "little people":

1) So, Gogol in the story "The Overcoat" characterizes the main character as a poor, ordinary, insignificant and inconspicuous person. In life, he is assigned the insignificant role of a copyist of department documents. Brought up in the sphere of subordination and execution of orders of superiors, Akaki Akakievich Bashmachkin not used to pondering the meaning of his work. That is why, when he is offered a task that requires the manifestation of elementary intelligence, he begins to worry, worry, and in the end comes to the conclusion: “No, I’d better let me rewrite something.”

Bashmachkin's spiritual life is consonant with his inner aspirations. The accumulation of money to buy a new overcoat becomes for him the goal and meaning of life. The theft of the long-awaited new thing, which was acquired through hardship and suffering, becomes a disaster for him.

And yet Akaky Akakievich does not appear in the mind of the reader as an empty, uninteresting person. We imagine that there were a great many of the same small, humiliated people. Gogol urged society to look at them with understanding and pity. Indirectly, this is demonstrated by the name of the protagonist: diminutive suffix -chk-(Bashmachkin) gives it an appropriate shade. "Mother, save your poor son!" - the author will write.

Calling for justice the author raises the question of the need to punish the inhumanity of society. As compensation for the humiliation and insults suffered during his lifetime, Akaky Akakievich, who rose from the grave in the epilogue, comes through and takes away their greatcoats and fur coats. He calms down only when he takes away the outerwear from the “significant person” who played a tragic role in the life of the “little man”. 2) In the story Chekhov's "Death of an Official" we see the slave soul of an official whose understanding of the world is completely distorted. There is no need to talk about human dignity here. The author gives his hero a wonderful surname: Chervyakov. Describing the small, insignificant events of his life, Chekhov seems to be looking at the world with Wormyakov's eyes, and these events become enormous. So, Chervyakov was at the performance and “felt at the height of bliss. But suddenly ... he sneezed. " Looking around like a "polite person", the hero was horrified to find that he had sprayed a civilian general. Worms begins to apologize, but this seemed not enough to him, and the hero asks for forgiveness again and again, day after day ... There are a lot of such small officials who know only their own world and it is not surprising that their experiences are made up of such small situations. The author conveys the whole essence of the official's soul, as if examining it under a microscope. Unable to withstand the cry in response to the apology, Chervyakov goes home and dies. This terrible catastrophe of his life is the catastrophe of his limitation. 3) In addition to these writers, Dostoevsky also addressed the theme of the "little man" in his work. The main characters of the novel "Poor People" - Makar Devushkin- a half-impoverished official, crushed by grief, need and social lack of rights, and Varenka- a girl who has become a victim of social ill-being. Like Gogol in The Overcoat, Dostoevsky turned to the topic of a powerless, immensely humiliated “little man” who lives his inner life in conditions that trample on human dignity. The author sympathizes with his poor heroes, shows the beauty of their soul. 4) Subject "Poor people" developed by the writer and in the novel "Crime and Punishment". One after another, the writer reveals before us a picture of terrible poverty, which humiliates human dignity. Petersburg, the poorest district of the city, becomes the scene of the work. Dostoevsky creates a canvas of immeasurable human torment, suffering and grief, insightfully peers into the soul of the "little man", discovers in him deposits of enormous spiritual wealth. Family life unfolds before us Marmeladovs. These are people crushed by reality. The official Marmeladov, who has nowhere else to go, gets drunk with grief and loses his human appearance. Exhausted by poverty, his wife Ekaterina Ivanovna dies from consumption. Sonya is released into the street to sell her body to save her family from starvation. The fate of the Raskolnikov family is also hard. His sister Dunya, wanting to help her brother, is ready to sacrifice herself and marry rich Luzhin, for whom she feels disgust. Raskolnikov himself conceives a crime, the roots of which, in part, lie in the sphere of social relations in society. The images of “little people” created by Dostoevsky are imbued with the spirit of protest against social injustice, against humiliation of man and faith in his high calling. The souls of the "poor" can be beautiful, full of spiritual generosity and beauty, but they are broken by the most difficult living conditions.

Russian World in 19th Century Prose.

For lectures:

The depiction of reality in Russian literature XIX century.

Landscape. Functions and types.

Interior: the problem of detail.

The depiction of time in literary text.

The motive of the road as a form of artistic development of the national picture of the world.

Landscape - not necessarily an image of nature, in the literature it can imply a description of any open space. This definition corresponds to the semantics of the term. From French - country, area. In French art theory, landscape descriptions include both wildlife and human-made objects.

The well-known typology of landscapes is based on the specifics of the functioning of this text component.

At first, landscapes are highlighted, which are the background of the narrative. These landscapes, as a rule, indicate the place and time against which the depicted events take place.

The second type of landscape- landscape creating a lyrical background. Most often, when creating such a landscape, the artist pays attention to the meteorological conditions, because this landscape should first of all influence the emotional state of the reader.

Third type- a landscape that creates / becomes a psychological background of existence and becomes one of the means of revealing the psychology of a character.

Fourth type- a landscape that becomes a symbolic background, a means of symbolic reflection of reality, depicted in a literary text.

The landscape can be used as a means of depicting a particular artistic time or as a form of the author's presence.

This typology is not the only one. The landscape can be expositional, dual, etc. Contemporary critics isolate Goncharov's landscapes; it is believed that Goncharov used the landscape for a perfect representation of the world. For a person who writes, the evolution of the landscape art of Russian writers is fundamentally important. There are two main periods:

pre-Pushkin, during this period, landscapes were characterized by the completeness and concreteness of the surrounding nature;

after the Pushkin period, the idea of ​​the ideal landscape changed. It assumes the parsimony of details, the economy of the image and the accuracy of the selection of parts. Accuracy, according to Pushkin, presupposes the identification of the most significant feature perceived in a certain way of feelings. This Pushkin's idea, then Bunin will use.

Second level. Interior - the image of the interior. The main unit of the interior image is detail (detail), attention to which was first demonstrated by Pushkin. The literary test of the 19th century did not show a clear boundary between the interior and the landscape.

Time in a literary text in the 19th century becomes discrete, discontinuous. Heroes easily go into memories and fantasies which rush into the future. The selectivity of the attitude to time appears, which is explained by the dynamics. Time in a literary text in the 19th century has a convention. The maximum conditional time in a lyric work, with the predominance of the grammar of the present tense, for the lyrics is especially characteristic of the interaction of different time layers. Artistic time is not necessarily concrete; it is abstract. In the 19th century, the image of historical color became a special means of concretizing artistic time.

One of the most effective means of depicting reality in the 19th century is the motive of the road, it becomes a part of the plot formula, a narrative unit. Initially, this motive dominated the travel genre. In the XI-XVIII centuries in the genre of travel, the motive of the road was used, first of all, to expand ideas about the surrounding space (cognitive function). In sentimental prose, the cognitive function of this motive is complicated by evaluativeness. Gogol uses travel to explore his surroundings. Updating the functions of the road motive is associated with the name of Nikolai Alekseevich Nekrasov. "Silence" 1858

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The 19th century is called the "Golden Age" of Russian poetry and the age of Russian literature on a global scale. Do not forget that the literary leap that took place in the 19th century was prepared by the whole course literary process 17-18 centuries. The 19th century is the time of the formation of the Russian literary language, which took shape largely thanks to A.S. Pushkin. But the 19th century began with the flowering of sentimentalism and the formation of romanticism. These literary trends found expression, first of all, in poetry. The poetic works of poets E.A. Baratynsky, K.N. Batyushkova, V.A. Zhukovsky, A.A. Feta, D.V. Davydova, N.M. Yazykov. The work of F.I. Tyutchev's "Golden Age" of Russian poetry was completed. Nevertheless, the central figure of this time was Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin. A.S. Pushkin began his ascent to the literary Olympus with the poem "Ruslan and Lyudmila" in 1920. And his novel in verse "Eugene Onegin" was called an encyclopedia of Russian life. Romantic poems by A.S. Pushkin's "The Bronze Horseman" (1833), "Bakhchisarai Fountain", "Gypsies" opened the era of Russian romanticism. Many poets and writers considered A.S. Pushkin their teacher and continued the traditions of creating literary works. One of these poets was M.Yu. Lermontov. Known for his romantic poem "Mtsyri" poetic story "Demon", many romantic poems. Interestingly, Russian poetry of the 19th century was closely relatedwith the social and political life of the country. Poets tried to comprehend the idea of ​​their special destiny. The poet in Russia was considered a conductor of divine truth, a prophet. Poets called on the authorities to listen to their words. The poems of A.S. Pushkin's The Prophet, the ode to Liberty, The Poet and the Crowd, poem by M.Yu. Lermontov "On the death of a poet" and many others. The prose writers of the beginning of the century were influenced by W. Scott's English historical novels, the translations of which were very popular. The development of Russian prose of the 19th century began with the prose works of A.S. Pushkin and N.V. Gogol. Pushkin, influenced by English historical novels, creates story " Captain's daughter», where the action takes place against the backdrop of grandiose historical events: during the Pugachev rebellion. A.S. Pushkin did a colossal work, exploring this historical period... This work was largely political in nature and was directed to those in power. A.S. Pushkin and N.V. Gogol outlined the main art types which will be developed by writers throughout the 19th century. This is an art type " extra person", A model of which is Eugene Onegin in the novel by A.S. Pushkin, and the so-called type of "little man", which is shown by N.V. Gogol in his story "The Overcoat", as well as A.S. Pushkin in the story "The Station Keeper". Literature inherited its journalistic and satirical character from the 18th century. In a prose poem N.V. Gogol "Dead Souls" the writer in a poignant satirical manner shows a swindler who buys up dead souls, different types of landowners who are the embodiment of various human vices(the influence of classicism affects). The comedy is sustained in the same plan. "Inspector". The works of A.S. Pushkin are also full of satirical images. Literature continues to satirically portray Russian reality. The tendency to depict the vices and shortcomings of Russian society - feature of all Russian classical literature... It can be traced in the works of almost all writers of the 19th century. At the same time, many writers implement the satirical tendency in a grotesque form. Examples of grotesque satire are the works of N. V. Gogol "The Nose", M. Ye. Saltykov-Shchedrin "Lord Golovlevs", "The History of a City". Since the middle of the 19th century, the formation of Russian realistic literature has been taking place, which is created against the background of the tense socio-political situation that developed in Russia during the reign of Nicholas I. A crisis of the serf system is brewing, the contradictions between the authorities and the common people are strong. There is a need to create a realistic literature that sharply reacts to the socio-political situation in the country. Literary critic V.G. Belinsky denotes a new realistic trend in literature. His position is developed by N.A. Dobrolyubov, N.G. Chernyshevsky. A dispute arises between the Westernizers and the Slavophiles about the paths of the historical development of Russia. Writers address to the socio-political problems of Russian reality. The genre of the realistic novel is developing. I.S. Turgenev, F.M. Dostoevsky, L.N. Tolstoy, I.A. Goncharov. Socio-political and philosophical issues prevail. Literature is distinguished by a special psychologism. people. The literary process of the late 19th century discovered the names of N. S. Leskov, A.N. A.P. Ostrovsky Chekhov. The latter proved to be a master of the small literary genre - the story, as well as an excellent playwright. Competitor A.P. Chekhov was Maxim Gorky. The end of the 19th century was marked by the formation of pre-revolutionary sentiments. The realistic tradition was beginning to fade. It was replaced by the so-called decadent literature, the hallmarks of which were mysticism, religiosity, as well as a presentiment of changes in the socio-political life of the country. Subsequently, decadence developed into symbolism. This opens a new page in the history of Russian literature.

7. Literary situation at the end of the 19th century.

Realism

The second half of the 19th century is characterized by the undivided dominance of the realistic trend in Russian literature. The basis realism as an artistic method is socio-historical and psychological determinism. The personality and fate of the person depicted appears as a result of the interaction of his character (or, deeper, universal human nature) with the circumstances and laws of social life (or, more broadly, history, culture - how can this be observed in the works of A.S. Pushkin).

Realism of the 2nd half of the 19th century often call critical, or socially accusatory. Recently, in modern literary criticism, attempts have been increasingly observed to abandon such a definition. It is both too wide and too narrow; it levels out the individual characteristics of the writers' creativity. N.V. is often called the founder of critical realism. Gogol, however, in Gogol's work, social life, the history of the human soul, is often associated with such categories as eternity, the highest justice, the providential mission of Russia, the kingdom of God on earth. Gogol's tradition to one degree or another in the second half of the 19th century. were picked up by L. Tolstoy, F. Dostoevsky, in part by N.S. Leskov - it is no coincidence that in their work (especially later) there is a craving for such pre-realistic forms of comprehending reality as preaching, religious and philosophical utopia, myth, life. It was not without reason that M. Gorky expressed the idea of ​​the synthetic nature of Russian classic realism, about its inseparability from the romantic direction. At the end of the XIX - beginning of the XX century. the realism of Russian literature not only opposes, but also interacts in its own way with the emerging symbolism. The realism of Russian classics is universal, it is not limited to the reproduction of empirical reality, it includes universal human content, the "mystery plan", which brings realists closer to the quests of romantics and symbolists.

The purely socially incriminating pathos appears most in the works of second-tier writers - F.M. Reshetnikov, V.A. Sleptsova, G.I. Uspensky; even N.A. Nekrasov and M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin, for all his closeness to the aesthetics of revolutionary democracy, are not limited in their work the posing of purely social, topical issues. Nevertheless, a critical orientation towards any form of social and spiritual enslavement of man unites all realist writers of the second half of the 19th century.

XIX century revealed the basic aesthetic principles and typological properties of realism... In Russian literature of the 2nd half of the 19th century. conventionally, several directions can be distinguished within the framework of realism.

1. The work of realist writers who strive for the artistic recreation of life in the "forms of life itself." The image often acquires such a degree of reliability that literary characters are spoken of as living people. To this direction belong I.S. Turgenev, I.A. Goncharov, partly N.A. Nekrasov, A.N. Ostrovsky, partly L.N. Tolstoy, A.P. Chekhov.

2. In the 60s and 70s, brightly outlines the philosophical-religious, ethical-psychological direction in Russian literature(L.N. Tolstoy, F.M.Dostoevsky). Dostoevsky and Tolstoy have stunning pictures of social reality, depicted in the "forms of life itself." But at the same time, writers always start from certain religious and philosophical doctrines.

3. Satirical, grotesque realism(in the first half of the 19th century, it is partly represented in the work of N.V. Gogol, in the 60s and 70s, it developed in full force in the prose of M.E.Saltykov-Shchedrin). The grotesque does not appear as hyperbole or fiction, it characterizes the writer's method; it combines in images, types, plots that which is unnatural and absent in life, but possibly in the world created by the artist's creative imagination; similar grotesque, hyperbolic images emphasize certain patterns that prevail in life.

4. Completely unique realism, "Angry" (Belinsky's word) by humanistic thought, presented in creativity A.I. Herzen. Belinsky noted the "Voltaire" style of his talent: "the talent went into the mind," which turns out to be a generator of images, details, plots, and biographies of a person.

Along with the dominant realistic trend in Russian literature of the 2nd half of the 19th century. the direction of the so-called "pure art" also developed - it was both romantic and realistic. Its representatives shunned "damned questions" (What to do? Who is to blame?), But not reality, by which they meant the world of nature and the subjective feeling of man, the life of his heart. They were worried about the beauty of being itself, the fate of the world. A.A. Fet and F.I. Tyutchev can be directly comparable with I.S. Turgenev, L.N. Tolstoy and F.M. Dostoevsky. The poetry of Fet and Tyutchev had a direct impact on the work of Tolstoy of the era of "Anna Karenina". It is no coincidence that Nekrasov discovered F.I. Tyutchev to the Russian public as a great poet in 1850.

Problems and poetics

Russian prose, with all the flowering of poetry and drama (A.N. Ostrovsky), occupies a central place in the literary process of the second half of the 19th century. It develops in the mainstream of the realistic direction, preparing an artistic synthesis in the variety of genre searches of Russian writers - a novel, the pinnacle of world literary development in the 19th century.

The search for new artistic techniques images of a person in his connections with the world appeared not only in genres story, story or novel (I.S.Turgenev, F.M.Dostoevsky, L.N. Tolstoy, A.F. Pisemsky, M.E.Saltykov-Shchedrin, D. Grigorovich). The pursuit of faithful reproduction of life in the literature of the late 40-50-ies begins to look for a way out in memoir and autobiographical genres, with their installation on documentary. At this time, they begin to work on the creation of their autobiographical books. A.I. Herzen and S.T. Aksakov; the trilogy partly adjoins this genre tradition L.N. Tolstoy (Childhood, Adolescence, Youth).

Another documentary genre goes back to the aesthetics of the "natural school", it is - feature article... In its purest form, it is presented in the works of the democratic writers N.V. Uspensky, V.A. Sleptsova, A.I. Levitova, N.G. Pomyalovsky ("Sketches of the Bursa"); in the revised and largely transformed - in "Notes of a Hunter" by Turgenev and "Provincial Essays" by Saltykov-Shchedrin, "Notes from the House of the Dead" by Dostoevsky. There is a complex interpenetration of artistic and documentary elements, fundamentally new forms of narrative prose are created that combine the features of the novel , essay, autobiographical notes.

The striving for epicness is a characteristic feature of the Russian literary process of the 1860s; it captures both poetry (N. Nekrasov) and drama (A.N. Ostrovsky).

The epic picture of the world as a deep connotation is felt in the novels I.A. Goncharova(1812-1891) "Oblomov" and "Break". So, in the novel "Oblomov", the outline of typical character traits and way of life subtly turns into an image of the universal content of life, its eternal states, collisions, situations. , which has firmly entered the Russian public consciousness under the name "Oblomovism", Goncharov opposes to it the preaching of deeds (the image of the Russian German Andrei Stolz) - and at the same time shows the limitations of this preaching. Oblomov's inertia appears in unity with genuine humanity. Oblomovism also includes the poetry of a noble estate, the generosity of Russian hospitality, the touchingness of Russian holidays, the beauty of Central Russian nature - Goncharov traces the primordial connection between the culture of the nobility, the nobility's consciousness and the soil of the people. The very inertia of Oblomov's existence is rooted in the depths of centuries, in the far corners of our national memory. Ilya Oblomov is in some way akin to Ilya Muromets, who sat on the stove for 30 years, or the fabulous simpleton Emelya, who achieved his goals without applying his own efforts - "at the pike's will, at my will." “Oblomovism” is a phenomenon of not just noble, but Russian national culture, and as such it is not idealized by Goncharov at all - the artist explores both its strong and weak features. In the same way, a purely European pragmatism, opposed to the Russian Oblomovism, reveals its strong and weak features. In the novel, at the philosophical level, the inferiority, insufficiency of both opposites and the impossibility of their harmonious connection are revealed.

In the literature of the 1870s, the same prose genres dominate as in the literature of the previous century, but new tendencies are manifested in them. Epic tendencies in narrative literature are weakening, there is an outflow of literary forces from the novel, to small genres - a story, an essay, a story. Dissatisfaction with the traditional novel was common in literature and criticism in the 1870s. It would be wrong, however, to believe that the genre of the novel entered a period of crisis during these years. The works of Tolstoy, Dostoevsky, Saltykov-Shchedrin serve as an eloquent refutation of this opinion. However, in the 70s the novel is undergoing an internal restructuring: the tragic beginning is sharply intensified; this tendency is associated with a heightened interest in the spiritual problems of the individual and its internal collisions. Novelists pay special attention to a personality who has reached its full development, but is faced with the fundamental problems of being, deprived of support, experiencing a deep discord with people and with itself ("Anna Karenina" by L. Tolstoy, "Demons" and "The Brothers Karamazov" by Dostoevsky ).

In the small prose of the 1870s, there is a craving for allegorical and parable forms. Especially indicative in this respect is the prose of N.S. Leskov, whose flowering of creativity falls precisely on this decade. He acted as an innovative artist who combined the principles of realistic writing into a single whole with the conventions of traditional folk-poetic techniques, with an appeal to the syllable and genres of Old Russian book literature. Leskov's skill was compared with icon painting and ancient architecture, the writer was called an "isographer" - and not without reason. Gorky called the gallery of original folk types painted by Leskov the "iconostasis of the righteous and saints" of Russia. Leskov introduced such layers into the sphere of artistic depiction folk life, which before him were hardly touched upon in Russian literature (the life of the clergy, philistinism, Old Believers and other layers of the Russian province). In depicting various social strata, Leskov skillfully used the forms of the tale, fancifully mixing the author's and folk points of view.

The literary movement of the 1870s, important changes in the stylistics and poetics of prose genres inevitably prepared a new period in the development of Russian realistic prose.

The 1880s are a strange, intermediate time in the history of Russian literature and Russian social thought. On the one hand, they were marked by a complete crisis of the populist ideology and the moods of pessimism caused by it, the absence of a common idea; “Sleep and darkness reigned in our hearts” - as A.A. Block in the poem "Retribution". However, it was precisely the exhaustion of the revolutionary ideology of the 1860s-1870s that led to the formation of a new attitude towards reality. The 80s are a time of radical reassessment of the history and culture of the past. An orientation toward a calm, peaceful development of society has become fundamentally new for Russian culture; for the first time, conservatism became an important part of the national consciousness. In society, an attitude began to take shape not on the alteration of the world (which prevailed in the 1860s-70s), but on the change (self-change) of man (F.M.Dostoevsky and L.N. Tolstoy, Vl.S. Soloviev and K. N. Leontiev, N. S. Leskov and V. M. Garshin, V. G. Korolenko and A. P. Chekhov).

The 1880s were perceived by contemporaries as an independent period, opposed in their minds to the sixties and seventies. The specificity of the period was associated with the idea of ​​the end of the era of Russian "classics", with a sense of the borderline, transition of time. The eighties summed up the development of Russian classical realism. The end of the period does not coincide with 1889, it should rather be attributed to the mid-1890s, when a new generation of writers announced themselves and tendencies associated with the emergence of symbolism appeared. The publication in 1893 of a brochure by D.S. Merezhkovsky "On the causes of decline and new trends in modern Russian literature", which became a program document of literature and criticism at the turn of the century. At the same time, this document is a starting point new era in the history of Russian literature. We can say that Russian literature of the 19th century. ends in 1893, its last period chronologically covers the years 1880-1893.

Russian literature of the 1880s is the literature of realism, but qualitatively changed. Classical realism of the 1830s-70s strove for synthesis in artistic research and depiction of life, focused on the knowledge of the whole, the universe in all its diversity and contradictions. Realism in the 80s was unable to give a clear and meaningful picture of life from the point of view of some general universal idea. But at the same time in Russian literature there is an intense search for a new generalized outlook on life. Russian literature of the 1880s interacts with religious-philosophical and ethical concepts; writers appear, in whose work philosophical ideas find their expression in artistic, literary form (V. Soloviev, K. N. Leontiev, early V. V. Rozanov). The realistic attitude in the works of the classics of Russian realism is changing; prose by I.S. Turgenev is saturated with mysterious, irrational motives; in the works of L.N. Tolstoy's realism is gradually but steadily transforming into realism of a different kind, tightly surrounded by moralistic and preaching journalism. A characteristic feature of the literary process of the 80-90s is the almost complete disappearance of the genre form of the novel and the flourishing of small epic genres: story, essay, story. The novel assumes a generalizing view of life, and in the 1980s, vital empiricism, a fact of reality, comes to the fore. Hence the emergence of naturalistic tendencies in Russian prose - in the works of second-tier fiction writers (P.D.Boborykin, D.N.Mamin-Sibiryak), partly even A.P. Chekhov, who is included in the literature of the 1880s as the author of humorous stories, sketches and parodies. Chekhov, perhaps more acutely than any of the artists, feels the exhaustion of previous artistic forms - and later it was he who was destined to become a true innovator in the field of new means of artistic expression.

Simultaneously with naturalistic tendencies in the prose of the 1880s, the desire for expressiveness, for the search for more capacious forms of artistic expression, is increasing. The desire for expressiveness leads to the predominance of the subjective principle not only in lyric poetry, which is experiencing a new heyday in the 80-90s, but also in narrative prose genres (V.M. Garshin, V.G. Korolenko). The vigorous development of mass fiction and mass drama became a distinctive feature of the prose of the 1980s. However, in the same years, A.N. Ostrovsky: "sad" comedies "Slaves", "Talents and Admirers", "Handsome Man", "Guilty Without Guilt" and L.N. Tolstoy (folk drama Power of Darkness, satirical comedy Fruits of Enlightenment). Finally, at the end of the 1880s, Chekhov embarked on a reform of the dramatic genre (the plays "Ivanov", "Leshy", later reworked into the play "Uncle Vanya").

Poetry of the 80s occupies a more modest place in the general literary process than prose and drama. It is dominated by pessimistic or even tragic notes. However, it is in the poetry of the 80s that the artistic tendencies of the new era, leading to the formation of the aesthetics of symbolism, emerge most clearly.

For lectures:

Ivan Alekseevich Bunin (1870-1953) is the last Russian classic, but new Russian literature begins with him.

Received the Pushkin Prize for the translation of the text "Song of the Goevat".

"Antonov apples" 1900, "The gentleman from San Francisco", "Light breath" - Bunin trilogy about the meaning of life. Innovation is determined by the fact that the artist leaves the study of class contradictions. The focus is on the civilizational conflict, the world of people in general. Bunin believed that in "Antonovskiye Apples" he presented new principles for creating a literary image. Ideological and artistic space allows us to pose completely different problems. "Antonov apples" are expressed:

fabulous plot;

in this story, Bunin has the opportunity to describe the "crystal" silence; a special subject of research was the state of sadness, "great and hopeless";

the unique rhythm of Bunin's prose;

brocade language.

Bunin linked the mystery of life with the motive of love and the motive of death, but he sees the ideal solution to the problems of love and death in the past (peace, harmony, when a person felt himself to be a part of nature).

In the XX century, Bunin in "The Lord from San Francisco" reveals the theme of death, which he began to think about since childhood. I express the idea that money gives only the illusion of life.

8. The literary situation at the beginning of the twentieth century.

Modern (the general name of different trends in art of the late 19th - early 20th centuries, proclaiming a break with realism, rejection of old forms and the search for new aesthetic principles.) - interpretation of being

Lyric poetry (Sensitivity in feelings, in moods; softness and subtlety of the emotional beginning)

The idea of ​​the synthesis of arts

Russian literature of the late XIX - early XX centuries. (1893 -1917) - pretty short, but a very important, independent in its significance period in the history of Russian literature... In October 1917 Russian culture has undergone a tragic cataclysm. The literary process of that time was characterized by unprecedented tension, contradiction, and the clash of various artistic tendencies. Not only in Russia, but in the entire world culture, a new modernist aesthetics, which sharply opposed its philosophical and artistic program, its new worldview to the aesthetics of the past, which essentially included the entire classical heritage of world culture.

A distinctive feature of the culture of the 1st quarter of the 20th century - unprecedented since Pushkin's times the flowering of poetry, and above all - lyric poetry, development of a completely new poetic language, new artistic imagery... The very concept of “ silver age"Owes its origin to the new rise of poetic art. This take-off is a direct consequence of the general process associated with search for more capacious means of artistic expression... The literature of the beginning of the century as a whole is characterized by the spirit of lyricism. At the turn of the century, lyricism becomes one of the most effective means of revealing the worldview of the author and the person of modern times he portrays. The flowering of poetry during this period is a natural consequence of deep processes in the history of Russian literature and culture; it is associated primarily with modernism as the leading artistic direction of the era.

Article by V.I. Lenin's "Party Organization and Party Literature" (1905) with the thesis that that literary work should be part of the general proletarian work- flowed from the principles proclaimed by "real criticism" and carried to their logical conclusion. The article provoked a sharp rebuff in the literary and philosophical thought of Russia at the beginning of the 20th century; Lenin's opponents were D. Merezhkovsky, D. Filosofov, N. Berdyaev, V. Bryusov, who was one of the first to react with the article "Freedom of speech", which appeared at the same time in November 1905 in the magazine "Libra". V. Bryusov defended the already established in the decadent environment beliefs about the autonomy of literature as the art of speech and freedom of artistic creation.

Literature at the turn of the century entered into close relationships with religion, philosophy, and other types of art, which were also experiencing a revival during that period: with painting, theater, and music. It was not for nothing that the idea of ​​a synthesis of arts occupied the minds of poets and artists, composers and philosophers. These are the most general trends in the development of literature and culture in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.

In the period of the late XIX - XX centuries. Russian literature includes a group of young writers who continue high traditions of classical realism. This is V.G. Korolenko, A.I. Kuprin, M. Gorky,I.A. Bunin,B. Zaitsev, I. Shmelev, V. Veresaev, L. Andreev... In the works of these writers, in a peculiar way reflected the interaction of the realistic method with the new trends of the era ... The bright and clear talent of V.G. Korolenko was distinguished by his attraction to romantic motives, plots, images. The prose and drama of Leonid Andreev, the further, the more it felt the influence of expressionist poetics. Lyric prose by B. Zaitsev, his plotless miniatures gave critics a reason to talk about impressionistic features in his creative method. The fame of I.A. Bunin was brought first of all by his story "Village", in which he gave a harsh image of modern folk life, sharply polemicizing with the poeticization of the peasantry, coming from the Turgenev tradition. At the same time, metaphorical imagery Bunin's prose, the associative connection of details and motives brings it closer to the poetics of symbolism. Early creativity M. Gorky associated with a romantic tradition. Revealing the life of Russia, an acutely dramatic spiritual state modern man, Gorky created a picture of life, in common with Kuprin, Bunin, Remizov, Sergeev-Tsynsky.

Modernist and avant-garde trends

The word "modernism" comes from the French. moderne - "newest". The aesthetics of realism implied reflection of the surrounding reality in the artist's works in its typical features ; aesthetics of modernism brought to the fore the creative will of the artist, the possibility of creating a multitude of subjective interpretations of being. Avant-garde is a private and extreme manifestation of modernist culture; The avant-garde motto could be the words of Pablo Picasso: “I portray the world not as I see it, but as I imagine it.” The avant-gardists believed that vital material can be deformed to the ground by the artist. Avant-garde art meant primarily a fundamental break with the traditions of the XIX century... Avant-garde in Russian culture is reflected in poetry futurists and in similar searches in the field of painting (K. Malevich, N. Goncharova) and theater (V. Meyerhold).

Introduction ………………………………………………………………………… ... 3

Chapter 2. Comparison of the theme of the little man in the works of Pushkin and the works of other authors ………………………………………………… ... 9

2.1. "Little Man" in the works of A.S. Griboedov ………………… 9

2.2. The development of the image of the "little man" by N.V. Gogol ……………… ..10

2.3. The theme of the "little man" in the works of M.Yu. Lermontov ………… ..10

2.4. F.M. Dostoevsky, as a continuation of the theme of the "little man" ... .11

2.5. Vision of the image of the "little man" L.N. Tolstoy ………………… ..13

2.6. The theme of the "little man" in the works of NS Leskov …………… 16

2.7. A.P. Chekhov and the “little man” in his stories ……………………… 17

2.8. Creation of the image of a “little man” by Maxim Gorky ………… ..20

2.9. "Little Man" in "Garnet Bracelet" by A.I. Kuprin ………… 21

2.10. The theme of "Little Man" by A.N. Ostrovsky …………………… ... 21

Conclusion ……………………………………………………………………… .23

List of literature sources ……………………………………………… ... 25

Definition "small man" applies to rank literary heroes epochs realism, usually occupying a rather low place in the social hierarchy: a petty official, a bourgeoisie, or even a poor nobleman. The image of the "little man" turned out to be all the more relevant the more democratic literature became. The very concept of "little man" is most likely into use introduced by Belinsky(article 1840 "Woe from Wit"). The topic of the "little man" is raised by many writers. She has always been relevant, because her task is reflect life common man with all her experiences, problems, troubles and small joys. The writer takes the hard work of showing and explaining the lives of ordinary people. “The little man is the representative of the whole nation. And each writer represents him in his own way.

In world literature, a parable novel can be distinguished Franz Kafka“A castle that reveals the tragic impotence of the little man and his unwillingness to come to terms with fate.

In German literature, the image of the "little man" gravitated towards Gerhart Hauptmann in his dramas Before Sunrise and The Lonely. The richness of the images of the "little man" in the works of Hauptmann gives rise to many different options (from a poorly educated driver to a subtle intellectual). Continued the Hauptmann tradition Hans Fallada.

In Russian literature of the 19th century, the image of the little man became especially popular. They worked on it Pushkin, Lermontov, Gogol, Gribodoev, Dostoevsky, Chekhov, Leo Tolstoy and many other writers.

The concept of the "little man" changed throughout the 19th and early 20th centuries. Each writer also had his own personal views on this hero. But already from the second third of the 20th century, this image disappears from the pages of literary works, since the method socialist realism does not suggest such a hero.

Chapter 1. The image of the "little man" in the works of A.S.

Pushkin

Greatest poet 19 century A.S. Pushkin also did not leave unnoticed the theme of the "little man", only he turned his gaze not to the image of a kneeling man, but to the fate of an unfortunate man, showing us his pure soul, unspoiled by wealth and prosperity, who knows how to rejoice, love, suffer ... This is a story "Stationmaster" included in the cycle "Belkin's Tales". Pushkin sympathizes with his hero.

Initially, his life is not easy.

"Who did not curse the station keepers, who did not curse them? Who, in a moment of anger, did not demand from them a fatal book in order to write in this his useless complaint of oppression, rudeness and malfunction? Who does not regard them as monsters of the human race, equal to the deceased We will, however, be fair, we will try to get into their position and, perhaps, we will judge them much more condescendingly. not always ... Peace, day or night. All the annoyance accumulated during a boring ride, the traveler takes out on the caretaker. The weather is unbearable, the road is bad, the driver is stubborn, the horses are not driven - but the caretaker is to blame. Entering his poor dwelling, the traveler looks at him as an enemy; it’s good if he will soon be able to get rid of the uninvited guest; but if the horses don’t happen? God! what curses, what threats will fall on his catch! In rain and slush, he is forced to run around the yards; in a storm, in the frost of Epiphany, he leaves in the canopy, so that just for a minute he can rest from the screams and pushes of the irritated guest ... Let us take a good look at all this, and instead of indignation, our heart will be filled with sincere compassion. "

But, the hero of the story Samson Vyrin, remains a happy and calm person. He is used to his service and has a daughter, a good helper.

He dreams of simple happiness, grandchildren, a large family, but fate disposes in a different way. Hussar Minsky, while passing by, takes his daughter Dunya with him. After an unsuccessful attempt to return his daughter, when the hussar "with a strong hand, grabbing the old man by the collar, pushed him up the stairs," Vyrin was no longer able to fight. And the unfortunate old man dies of melancholy, grieving about her possible deplorable fate.

Evgeniy, the hero of The Bronze Horseman, is similar to Samson Vyrin.
Our hero lives in Kolomna, serves somewhere, shuns the noble. He does not make great plans for the future, he is satisfied with a quiet, inconspicuous life.

He also hopes for his personal, albeit small, but so necessary for him family happiness.

But all his dreams are in vain, because evil fate bursts into his life: the elements are destroying his beloved. Eugene cannot resist fate, he is quietly going through his loss. And only in a state of madness threatens the Bronze Horseman, considering the man who built the city on this ruinous place to be the culprit of his misfortune. Pushkin looks at his heroes from the side. They are not distinguished either by their minds or by their position in society, but they are kind and decent people, and therefore deserve respect and sympathy. In the novel "Captain's daughter" the category of "little people" includes Petr Andreevich Grinev and captain Mironov... They are distinguished by the same qualities: kindness, justice, decency, the ability to love and respect people. But they have another very good quality- to remain faithful to the given word. Pushkin put in the epigraph the saying: "Take care of honor from your youth." They have preserved their honor. And as dear to A.S. Pushkin, as the heroes of his previously named works.

Pushkin puts forward a democratic theme in them
a little man (the story "The Stationmaster"), preceding Gogol's "Overcoat".

This is what he writes in his critical article "Fiction of Pushkin" literary critic S.M. Petrov:

"Belkin's Tales" appeared in print the first realistic work Russian prose. Along with the traditional themes from the nobility and estate life ("The Young Lady-Peasant"), Pushkin puts forward in them the democratic theme of the little man(the story "The Stationmaster"), preceding Gogol's "Overcoat".

"Belkin's Tales" was Pushkin's polemical response to the main currents of contemporary Russian prose. By the veracity of the image deep penetration into the character of a person, the absence of any didacticism "Stationmaster" Pushkin put an end influence
sentimental and didactic story about a little man like " Poor Lisa"Karamzin. Idealized images, deliberately created for didactic purposes, the plot situations of the sentimental story are replaced by real types and everyday pictures, depicting the genuine joys and sorrows of life.

Deep humanism Pushkin's story is opposed to the abstract sensibility of the sentimental story. The mannered language of the sentimental story, falling into moralizing rhetoric, gives way to a simple and unsophisticated narration, like the story of the old caretaker about his Duna. Realism is replacing sentimentalism in Russian prose. "

D. Blagoy considers the crown of Pushkin's realism, its consistent completion, the image of the "little man", the unassuming "collegiate registrar", even reaching the point of directly identifying the ideals of life of Eugene ("The Bronze Horseman"), the most typical of a series of such heroes, with the aspirations of the poet himself.

“In reality, however, Pushkin of the 1930s, who more than once sympathetically depicted the life and life of“ little people, ”endowing the latter with warm human feelings, could at the same time see the limitations and scarcity of the spiritual needs of a petty official, a bourgeoisie, a seedy nobleman. Pitying the "little man", Pushkin at the same time shows the philistine narrowness of his requests.

How characteristic is the type of French teacher in "Dubrovsky":

“I have an old mother, I’ll send half of my salary to her for food, from the rest of the money in five years I can accumulate a small capital - sufficient for my future independence, and then bonsoir, I go to Paris and start commercial operations”. - Emphasizes A. Grushkin in article "Image folk hero in the works of Pushkin in the 30s ”.

At times the image of a little man at Alexander Sergeevich go to the description of the folk hero... Let's turn to a fragment of the same article by Grushkin:

“In the Songs of the Western Slavs, he found this hero. The latter, it would seem, is endowed with all the features of a "little man". At first glance, we are faced with an undemanding, simple person, way of life which is primitive to the extreme. For example, what would the hero of the Funeral Song, for example, tell the old father, who is already "behind the grave", about what?

The very concept of "little man" appears in literature before the type of hero itself takes shape. Initially, it was a designation of people of the third estate, which became of interest to writers due to the democratization of literature. In the nineteenth century, the image of the "little man" becomes one of the cross-cutting themes of literature. The concept of "little man" was introduced by V.G. Belinsky in his 1840 article "Woe from Wit." Initially, it meant a "simple" person. With the development of psychologism in Russian literature, this image takes on a more complex psychological portrait and becomes the most popular character in democratic works of the second half of the 19th century. The history of literature has shown that the type of the little person turned out to be very flexible, capable of modification. With a change in the social, political, cultural structure, under the influence philosophical ideas different thinkers evolve in literature and the type of "little man", there are his various options. The difficult times at the turn of the century gave rise to existential sentiments: a “little man” is no longer only a social type of the defective and defenseless, it is a person in general. This is a person who is weak and defenseless against cataclysms, fractures, fate, fate, the Universe. But different writers at the turn of the century placed different accents when developing the theme of the “little man”. M. Gorky (Matryona "The Orlov Spouses", Nikita "The Artamonovs Case", Arina "Boredom"). Like no other Russian writer, Gorky saw in simple people crushed by life a rich and multifaceted inner world, lofty thoughts and great demands, thoughts not only about a piece of bread, but also about the structure of the world, a slow but steady growth of the people's consciousness. In serious, socially significant conflicts, bright, complex characters, different beliefs collide. Gorky not only and not so much pitied the "little man", "humiliated and insulted," capital letter, did not allow himself to be humiliated and insulted. ("Man - it sounds proudly", Satin, "At the Bottom"). Gorky believed in spiritual creative forces a person, that a person, even a "small" one, will overcome the reigning evil. Ultimately, this was due to the maturing of the revolution in the country, and Gorky's works turned out to be consonant with the feelings, thoughts, moods of people of those years. Gorky tried to find a bright beginning in the "dead creatures", from himself and from his heroes opposed attempts to humiliate and offend the "little man", which was especially clearly manifested in the terrible story "Boredom". But as an artist, especially in the early period of his creative work, Gorky did not escape Nietzsche's aestheticism, which includes admiring strength as a "non-moral" phenomenon. He opposes "little people" to people who are physically strong, beautiful and sympathizes with the latter. This is clearly seen in such stories as "Makar Chudra", "On the Rafts", "Malva" and some others. Chelkash gives the money to Gavrila not because he feels sorry for the unfortunate guy. His humiliation is disgusting to him, he is aesthetically "unpleasant" to him. IA Bunin insisted on the irrational nature of a person's actions. In the stories "Ignat", "Cricket" and others, Bunin argues that "little people" lack a sense of moral consciousness, there are no concepts of good and evil. In his stories, the happiness of the "little man" does not depend on adherence to moral norms. E. Zamyatin's story "Uyezdnoye" the main character - "little man", Anfim Baryba, who is close to Bashmachkin Gogol. But Gogol in the Bashmachkin protects the Man, his brother, and Zamyatin sees in his hero a serious social and moral danger. This is a socially dangerous, malevolent variety of "little man". F. Sologub, on the one hand, inherits the features of Russian classical prose, on the other hand, the author deliberately departs from it. By the nature of his work, Sologub is close to Chekhov, Saltykov to Shchedrin (that is, the "little man" is to blame for his misfortunes ", ridicules the" little man "). Like Chekhov, Sologub feels the vulgarity of life around them in its most subtle manifestations. In the novel The Little Demon, its protagonist Peredonov is all woven from allusions associated with his predecessors, with all those “small and humiliated”, unprotected ones, but this is a different variation of a “case” type of person, a “little man”. Peredonov is an insignificant creature bursting with ambition, the embodiment of an ordinary demon, the seamy side of life, an immoral and spiritless person, the focus of evil. Thus, in the work of Sologub, the "little man" is transformed into a "petty demon". The coveted rank of inspector is the transformation of Akaki Akakievich's overcoat, the only valuable thing in life. But unlike the "little people" of 19th century literature, Peredonov thinks himself important, significant, revels in his significance, but at the same time considers servility and sycophancy in front of superiors not shameful. Peredonov "little man" precisely in the meaning of "petty, crumbling, vile degenerate, base, insignificant in his malice." It is the embodiment of the social and moral bottom. In this Peredonov is close to Baryba Zamyatin. In the story "Little Man" Sologub openly declares the continuation of the tradition: Saranin, unprepossessing in appearance (small in stature), serves in the department. The hero, having drunk inadvertently the drops intended for his wife (to reduce her stoutness and give her the height corresponding to her husband's), began to catastrophically shrink. Literally. The metaphorical name of the historical and literary type of hero "little man" is read and developed by Sologub literally. But the component of the conflict remains traditional, Sologub directly says about it: "the traditions of Akaky Akakievich's colleagues are tenacious." Saranin's colleagues despise him for his small stature, the bosses demand the return of their previous size, they threaten to be fired, the wife ceases to consider him as a man at all, no one hears the "mosquito squeak" of the little man, he becomes a toy, a puppet in the hands of the "powerful of this world." Not having the strength to resist them, the "little man" is forced to submit to the cruel power of capital. “Little people can talk, but their squeak is not audible to people large sizes"- sums up the author. "The Little Man" in the works of A.I. Kuprina (Zheltkov "Pomegranate Bracelet", Romashov, Khlebnikov "Duel", Sashka "Gambrinus") carries a sense of the hopelessness of life, a complete loss of the possibilities of existence. The disadvantaged characters of Kuprin's stories often live in an atmosphere of suffering and sorrow. The more striking is their "complex feelings", "bright impulses." Kuprin depicts the uncommon nature of the "little man", which is manifested in his actions. His behavior is accompanied by such a "set of mental movements" that there is no reason to doubt the "miraculous gift" of the "little man". One of the manifestations of this gift is love. Continuing the traditions of Pushkin and Dostoevsky, Kuprin sympathizes with the "little man", reveals his spiritual qualities as opposed to decadent writers, although he sees his inherent weaknesses, which he sometimes depicts with friendly irony. On the eve of the revolution and in its years, the theme of “the little man” was one of the main themes in Kuprin's work. The writer's attention to the "little man", the defense of his ability to feel, love, suffer completely in the spirit of Dostoevsky and Gogol. Let us recall at least Zheltkov from “ Garnet bracelet". Quiet, timid and inconspicuous, evoking the pity of Vera and her husband, he not only grows into a tragic hero, but by the power of his love rises above the petty vanity, comforts of life, decency. The "little man" Zheltkov turns out to be a man who is in no way inferior in nobility, in the ability to love aristocrats. With the greatest brightness and artistic power, the growth of consciousness of the "little man" so beloved by Kuprin in the era of the first Russian revolution is reflected in the famous story "Gambrinus" - one of best works a writer. Poor Jewish violinist Sashka from the port tavern "Gambrinus" refuses to sing the monarchist hymn in the days of rampant reaction, boldly throws the word "murderer" in the face of the tsarist guard and strikes him - this Sashka is perhaps the most courageous of all Kuprin's "little people" on everyone else. So he was made by the inspiring atmosphere of the days of the first Russian revolution, perfectly conveyed in the story. Brotherly, "Gogol" attitude to the "little man", compassion, sadness about his useless life, we see in the story "Duel". “Who, finally, will arrange the fate of the downtrodden Khlebnikov, feed him, teach him and say to him:“ Give me your hand, brother. ” At the same time, his "little" hero (Romashov, Zheltkov) is indecisive, romantic-minded, cannot withstand a duel with harsh reality, turns out to be unviable, dies physically, having no moral strength to resist the circumstances. The traditionally realistic theme of the "little man" takes on a different coloring from L.N. Andreeva. Man is a helpless creature in the face of sinister forces, endlessly alone and suffering. It is necessary to note the close attention of Leonid Andreev to everything related to moral shock: the presence or absence of fear, overcoming it. At the center of his stories are the fear of death and the fear of life, and it is no less terrible than death. The "little man" is experiencing a panic horror of the universe. In Andreev's early prose, contemporaries immediately saw the Chekhov tradition in the depiction of the "little man." According to the choice of the hero, the degree of his deprivation, according to democracy author's position Andreev's stories such as "Bargamot and Garaska", "Petka at the Dacha", "Angel", "Once Upon a Time" are quite comparable with those of Chekhov. But Andreev everywhere singled out a terrible state of the world for himself - complete disunity, mutual misunderstanding of people. In the Easter meeting of the well-known policeman Bargamot and the tramp Garaska, each of them unexpectedly does not recognize the other: “Bargamot was amazed”, “continued to be perplexed”; Garaska felt "even some kind of awkwardness: Bargamot was too wonderful!" However, even having discovered the unknown pleasant in their interlocutor, both cannot, do not know how to establish relations with each other. Garaska only publishes a "plaintive and rude howl", and Bargamot "less than Garaska understands that his cloth language is fencing." ... And the little heroes themselves do not understand what they need. Petka "wanted to go somewhere else." Sasha "wanted to stop doing what is called life." The dream does not fade, it does not even perish (as in the works of Chekhov, Gogol), it does not arise, only indifference or anger remains. Expanding the theme of the "little man", L.N. Andreev affirms the value of every human life. That's why main theme his early creativity becomes the theme of achieving community between people. The writer seeks to understand the importance of those universal values ​​that unite people, bring them together, regardless of any social factors. It should also be noted that the theme of the "little man" in L. Andreev's work has evolved. At first, it was painted in tones of sympathy and compassion for disadvantaged people, but soon the writer began to be interested not so much in the "little man" suffering from humiliation and material poverty (although this was not forgotten), as in the "little man", oppressed by the consciousness of petty and ordinary your personality. Starting from the first stories, in the work of Leonid Andreev, a doubt stubbornly pursuing him arises about the possibility of an adequate comprehension of the nature of the world and of man, which determines the originality of the poetics of his works: in this regard, he experiences either timid hope or deep pessimism. None of these approaches to life ever succeed in gaining complete victory in his works. In this distinctive feature of his worldview, we see the fundamental feature of his work. N. Teffi's "Little Man" is quite close to Chekhov's hero. Subtle irony, hidden psychologism, Chekhov's elegance of language distinguished her stories from the huge stream of humorous literature that fell on Russia in the "days of freedom" and subsequent years. The story "The Gift Horse" by N. Teffi is very close to Chekhov's "Death of an Official". Like A.P. Chekhov, N. Teffi's laugh is rather distant, but more sarcastic than that of the classic. Her hero is not exceptional, but ordinary. The comedy of the story is closely related to the psychological overtones. In the center of the story is the story of the "little man" Nikolai Ivanovich Utkin. There is no doubt that we are dealing with a “little man”, since at the very beginning of the story the author demonstratively emphasizes the origin of the hero - “a small excise official of a small district town”. For the main character of the story, a "lucky" win - a horse is a symbol of ambitious dreams, the pitiful claims of the "little man" to some other life, reminiscent of the life of an aristocrat. Utkin's ridiculous deeds, his desire to stand out from the crowd, are characteristic of a petty provincial official. The comic of the story is based on a deep exposure of the psychology of a worthless person, but claiming a higher status, so laughter is colored with notes of sadness. This also makes N. Teffi related to N.V. Gogol. The "little man" in the image of N. Teffi, his true essence, is so adapted and harmonious in the surrounding reality, which has a permanent modal assessment of the author, that it seems a worthy product and semantic continuation of the environment that brought him up, but hostile to him. And if the hero A.P. Chekhov can count on the reader's compassion due to the drama of the situation in which he finds himself, then the character of N. Teffi is placed in the situation of an episode that makes up the content of the relationship "society-individual" as permanently antonymic. And therefore the faceless, insignificant characters in N. Teffi's small prose form an integral part of the environment, their internal and external content in the author's image acquires a more rigid interpretation than the image of the “little man” by A.P. Chekhov, although both authors use irony as a way of seeing the world.