Primitive man and primitive society. How ideas about the universe changed How ancient people learned about the world
Especially for vacationers, as well as regular travel lovers, we tell you where the legs of modern tourism come from.
1. Primeval world
The first people could not afford long-term parking. Having exhausted Natural resources, they left their homes and went in search of new lands, where the mammoths are bigger and the grass is greener.
Constant migration processes stimulated the intellectual development of people: the beginnings of geographical knowledge appeared, botany, zoology and even elementary mechanics developed. In addition, the need to transmit accumulated information contributed to the emergence of rock art.
2. Ancient civilizations
With the advent of the first civilizations, the movement of human masses around the planet did not stop, although the motivation for movement changed.
The key to the prosperity of ancient states was international trade. Rulers Ancient Egypt regularly equipped expeditions pursuing trade and economic goals. For example, it is known for certain about the journey of a certain Hannu in 2750 BC. to the Red Sea coast precious stones, ivory and incense.
Then, in the 27th century BC. e. Egyptian ships crossed the Mediterranean Sea for the first time - the destination of the wanderers was the Phoenician city of Byblos, from where the flotilla returned filled to the brim with cedar wood.
It should be noted that merchants often played the role of pioneers, supplying their homeland not only with rare goods, but also with valuable information about the structure of the surrounding world.
The development of trade led to the creation of the institution of embassies. Chinese, Egyptian, and Sumerian diplomats made long-term voyages to distant lands in order to become a guarantor of peaceful relations between states. Long before the start new era Religious wanderings also appeared. Groups of pilgrims making processions to the temples of the great gods, and missionaries spreading their own creed, organically fit into the cultural landscape of the ancient world.
3. Ancient Greece
The Hellenes also undertook trading voyages, made pilgrimages and traveled for knowledge (“The Father of History” Herodotus visited Egypt, Persia, Babylonia, the country of the Scythians and many other places, describing in detail the geography of his movements, as well as the history and culture of the peoples he saw). Moreover, it is in Ancient Greece For the first time, such phenomena as sports and health tourism appeared.
Those wishing to improve their health went to the temples of the god of healing, Asclepius. These structures, as a rule, were located far from cities in places with favorable climate. Temple priests studied medicine and helped everyone who wanted to be cured of illnesses.
However, the treatment began even before the believer met the deity. The ritual preceding a visit to the temple included a number of important procedures: fasting, ablution, and visiting the bathhouse. In addition, the Greeks knew very well about the healing properties of sulfur, salt-sulfur and ferruginous waters. Baths were built near the springs, where wealthy citizens could relax and at the same time get rid of ailments.
The phenomenon of sports tourism appeared in Greece around the 8th century. BC e. thanks to the Olympic Games. Every four years, tens of thousands of fans flocked to Olympia to watch their idols compete.
On the occasion of the Olympics, a fair was held in the city, where, in addition to shopping, one could listen to the performances of famous philosophers, poets or speakers, and also admire the works of local painters. Cultural leisure continued in the temples, where, for a fee, it was possible to watch the work of the priests, as well as listen to a “tour guide” telling stories and legends about this place.
A network of “sacred” roads was laid near large temples, providing unhindered access for pilgrims to the sanctuary. At resorts and near temples there were hotels that provided shelter for strangers, but travelers brought food with them. These institutions were municipally owned, because running such a business was considered unworthy.
In addition, in rich houses there were usually always rooms for guests - wealthy Greeks warmly welcomed even unfamiliar travelers.
“Hospitality Unions” were created in Greek cities. Each member of such a union - xen - became a defender of the interests of the inhabitants of another policy in his state. Over time, the institution of proxenes was formed in Hellas. Proxenus played the role of consul, representing the interests of the inhabitants of the place that assigned him this status.
4. Ancient Rome
During the heyday of the empire, a network of high-quality roads was built, the total length of which, according to various estimates, ranged from 80 to 300 thousand kilometers. Along the roads, at a distance of 6-15 miles from each other, there were post stations where you could change horses, as well as satisfy other needs: dine at a tavern and stop for the night.
Most of the Roman hotels could not be called comfortable: pillows stuffed with straw and infested with insects, diluted wine, bad food. Therefore, the poor stayed at roadside hotels. Rich travelers spent the night in tents that they took with them.
Road maps indicating inns were in great demand among travelers. In addition to maps, at the beginning of the new era the Romans also had guidebooks at their disposal. They could be purchased at a special “tourist bureau”.
About the unprecedented blossoming of the tourism industry in Ancient Rome The fact that prominent minds of their time began to develop a philosophy of travel also speaks for itself. For example, Seneca the Younger wrote that for a productive vacation it is necessary to “choose places that are healthy not only for the body, but also for morals,” since “the area, no doubt, is not without the ability to corrupt.”
Tendency to cognitive activity endowed to man by nature. One of the distinctive abilities of man, which sets him apart from the animal world, is the ability to ask questions and seek answers to them. The ability to ask complex, deep questions indicates a developed intellectual personality. Thanks to cognitive activity, an individual improves, develops, and achieves desired goals. In addition to learning about the world around us, a person gets to know himself; this process begins from the first years of life.
Cognition begins with the perception of the surrounding space, into which the baby is immersed from the moment of birth in this world. Baby tastes various items: toys, own clothes, whatever comes to hand. Growing up, he begins to comprehend the world through thinking, comparing and contrasting different information, observations, and facts.
The need for knowledge inherent in humans can be explained by the following reasons:
- Presence of consciousness.
- Innate curiosity.
- The pursuit of truth.
- Tendency to creative activity(interrelated with cognition).
- The desire to improve one's own life and the life of the entire society.
- The desire to anticipate and overcome unforeseen difficulties, for example, natural disasters.
Understanding the world around us is a continuous process; it does not stop after graduating from school, university, or retirement. As long as a person is alive, he will strive to comprehend the secrets and laws of the universe, the surrounding space, and himself.
Types and ways of knowing
There are many methods and ways of obtaining knowledge about the world around us. Depending on the predominance of a person’s sensory or mental activity, two types of knowledge are distinguished: sensory and rational. Sensory cognition is based on the activity of the senses, rational cognition is based on thinking.
The following forms of cognition are also distinguished:
- Everyday (household). A person gains knowledge based on his life experience. He observes the people around him, situations, phenomena that he encounters every day throughout his life. Based on this experience, a person forms his idea of the world and society; it is not always true, and is often erroneous.
Example. Marya Ivanovna, a high school mathematics teacher, believes that all students cheat. She formed this opinion thanks to a rich life experience, having worked at the school for more than 10 years. But, in reality, her conclusions are erroneous and exaggerated, because there are guys who complete all the tasks on their own.
- Scientific knowledge. It is carried out in the process of a targeted search for objective knowledge that can be proven in theory and in practice. Methods of scientific knowledge: comparison, observation, experiment, generalization, analysis. The results of scientific knowledge are theorems, hypotheses, scientific facts, discoveries, and theories. If you open any school textbook, most of the information contained in it is the result of long-term scientific knowledge.
- Religious knowledge- belief in divine and demonic forces: God, angels, the Devil, devils, the existence of heaven and hell. It can be based on belief in one single God, or many Gods. Religious knowledge also includes beliefs in mystical powers and the supernatural.
- Artistic knowledge- perception of the world based on ideas about beauty. Cognition is carried out through artistic images, means of art.
- Social Cognition - a continuous process of acquiring knowledge about society as a whole, individual social groups, and people in society.
- Philosophical knowledge based on an interest in the search for truth, comprehension of man’s place in the surrounding world, the universe. Philosophical knowledge is discussed when the questions are asked: “Who am I,” “For what purpose was I born,” “What is the meaning of life,” “What place do I occupy in the universe,” “Why is a person born, sick, and dead?”
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Sensory cognition
Sensory cognition is the first type of cognitive activity available to humans. It is carried out through the perception of the world based on the activity of the senses.
- With the help of vision, an individual perceives visual images, shapes, and distinguishes colors.
- Through touch, he perceives the surrounding space by touch.
- Thanks to the sense of smell, a person can distinguish more than 10,000 different odors.
- Hearing is one of the main senses in the process of cognition; with its help, not only sounds from the surrounding world are perceived, but also knowledge is disseminated.
- Special receptors located on the tongue allow a person to feel 4 basic tastes: bitter, sour, sweet, salty.
Thus, thanks to the activity of all senses, a holistic idea of an object, an object, a living being, or a phenomenon is formed. Sensory cognition is available to all living beings, but has a number of disadvantages:
- The activity of the senses is limited, especially in humans. For example, a dog has a stronger sense of smell, an eagle has vision, an elephant has hearing, and an echidna has a stronger sense of touch.
- Often sensory knowledge excludes logic.
- Based on the activity of the senses, the individual is drawn into emotions: beautiful images cause admiration, an unpleasant smell causes disgust, a sharp sound causes fear.
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According to the degree of knowledge of the surrounding space, it is customary to distinguish the following types of sensory knowledge:
- 1st view - sensation. It represents a separate characteristic of an object, obtained through the activity of one of the sense organs.
Example. Nastya smelled hot bread while walking down the street; it was brought by the wind from the bakery where bread was being baked. Petya saw a shelf with oranges in the store window, but he did not have money with him to go in and buy them.
- 2nd type - perception. This is a set of sensations that creates a holistic picture, a general image of an object or phenomenon.
Example. Nastya was attracted by the delicious smell, went into the bakery and bought bread there. It was still hot, with a crispy crust, and Nastya ate half of it at once during lunch. Petya asked his mother to buy oranges at home, in the store opposite the house. They were large and bright in color, but they tasted sour and disgusting. Petya could not finish even one piece of fruit.
- 3rd view - performance. This is the memory of an object, a subject explored earlier, thanks to the activity of the senses.
Example. Feeling the familiar smell of bread, Nastya immediately wanted to have lunch; she well remembered the crispy crust of a fresh hot loaf. Petya, having attended a friend’s name day, grimaced at the sight of oranges on the table; he immediately remembered the sour taste of the recently eaten fruit.
Rational cognition
Rational knowledge is knowledge based on logical thinking. It differs from the sensory in important characteristics:
- Availability of evidence. If the result of sensory cognition are sensations obtained from one’s own experience, then the result of rational cognition are facts that can be proven using scientific methods.
- Systematic knowledge gained. Knowledge is not isolated from each other, it is interconnected into a system of concepts and theories, forming separate sciences.
Example. History is a science based on rational knowledge. All knowledge obtained with its help is systematized and complements each other.
- The presence of a conceptual apparatus. Thanks to rational knowledge, concepts and definitions are created that can be used in the future.
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Methods of rational cognition are:
- logical method (using logical thinking in knowing something);
- synthesis (connection of individual parts, data into a single whole);
- observation;
- measurement;
- comparison (determining differences, similarities);
All existing sciences and teachings were created on the basis of rational knowledge.
Ways to find information
IN modern times One of the ways to understand the world around us is information search. A wide variety of media greatly increases a person’s cognitive capabilities. Thus, cognition is carried out through:
- printed publications (newspapers, books, magazines);
- Internet;
- television;
- radio broadcasting;
Using the Internet you can very quickly and easily find almost any information, but it is not always reliable. Therefore, when choosing ways to search for information, you need to be careful and check data in different sources.
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Example. In 2012, many articles were published on the Internet that foreshadowed the end of the world. Some talked about an asteroid falling to Earth, others about global warming and flooding of the land surface. But this could be easily verified by finding research by different scientists about upcoming natural disasters and comparing their results with each other.
Self-knowledge
WITH early years a person observes his appearance, evaluates his activities, compares himself with others. Every year he learns something new about himself: abilities, character traits, and personality traits manifest themselves. Self-knowledge of a person is not a quick, gradual process. By recognizing one's strengths and weaknesses, a person can improve and develop.
Self-knowledge consists of several levels:
- Self-recognition. At the age of 1-1.5 years, the child begins to recognize himself in the mirror and understand that his reflection is there.
- Introspection. The individual observes his actions, thoughts, and actions.
- Introspection. A person is aware of his character qualities, characteristics, evaluates them, and compares them with moral standards. He compares his actions and the results to which they led.
- Self-esteem. A person develops a stable idea of himself as an individual. Self-esteem can be objective, suspended or underestimated.
In addition, self-knowledge can be directed by a person to his own mental, creative or physical abilities. A separate type is spiritual self-knowledge, in this case a person is interested in the nature of his soul.
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The rich inner world of man
The inner world of a person is his desires, goals, beliefs, worldview, ideas about himself and other people, values. You can notice your appearance immediately and appreciate its attractiveness, but with the inner world things are more complicated. At first glance it is invisible, but over time it manifests itself in a person’s communication and actions.
It often happens that an outwardly unattractive person still evokes sympathy due to his inner qualities. And vice versa, beautiful person quickly causes disappointment if he behaves stupidly, impudently, selfishly. So the inner world and appearance, actions - form a single whole, making up a general idea of \u200b\u200ba person.
THE ORIGIN OF ART
The oldest surviving works of art date back to the primitive era (about sixty thousand years ago). However, no one knows the exact time of creation of the oldest cave painting. According to scientists, the most beautiful of them were created approximately ten to twenty thousand years ago. When almost all of Europe was covered with a thick layer of ice; and people could live only in the southern part of the continent. The glacier slowly retreated, and after it, primitive hunters moved north. It can be assumed that in the most difficult conditions of that time, all human strength was spent fighting hunger, cold and predatory animals, but it was then that the first magnificent paintings appeared. Primitive artists knew very well the animals on which the very existence of people depended. With a light and flexible line they conveyed the poses and movements of the animal. Colorful chords - black, red, white, yellow - create a charming impression. Minerals mixed with water, animal fat and plant sap made the color of the cave paintings particularly vibrant. On the walls of the caves they depicted animals that they already knew how to hunt at that time, among them there were also those that would be tamed by humans - bulls, horses, reindeer. There were also those that later became completely extinct: mammoths, saber-toothed tigers, cave bears. It is possible that the pebbles with images of animals scratched on them, found in the caves, were student work." art schools"Stone Age.
The most interesting cave paintings in Europe were found completely by accident. They are found in the caves of Altamira in Spain and Lascaux (1940) in France. Currently, about one and a half hundred caves with paintings have been found in Europe; and scientists, not without reason, believe that this is not the limit, that not everything has been discovered yet. Cave monuments have also been found in Asia and North Africa.
The huge number of these paintings, and their high artistry, for a long time led experts to doubt the authenticity of the cave paintings: it seemed that primitive people could not have been so skilled in painting, and the amazing preservation of the paintings suggested a fake. Along with cave paintings and drawings, various sculptures made of bone and stone were found, which were made using primitive tools. These sculptures are associated with the primitive beliefs of people.
At a time when man did not yet know how to process metal, all tools were made of stone - it was stone Age. Primitive people made drawings on everyday objects - stone tools and clay vessels, although there was no need for this. The human need for beauty and the joy of creativity is one of the reasons for the emergence of art, the other is the beliefs of that time. The beliefs are associated with beautiful monuments of the Stone Age - painted with paints, as well as images engraved on stone that covered the walls and ceilings of underground caves - cave paintings. Not knowing how to explain many phenomena, people of that time believed in magic: believing that with the help of paintings and spells one could influence nature (hit a drawn animal with an arrow or spear to ensure the success of a real hunt).
The Bronze Age began in Western Europe relatively late, about four thousand years ago. It got its name from the then widespread metal alloy - bronze. Bronze is a soft metal, it is much easier to process than stone, it could be cast into molds and polished. Household items began to be richly decorated with bronze ornaments, which mostly consisted of circles, spirals, wavy lines and similar motives. The first decorations began to appear, which were large in size and immediately caught the eye.
But perhaps the most important asset of the Bronze Age are the huge structures that scientists associate with primitive beliefs. In France, on the Brittany peninsula, fields stretch for kilometers, on which there are high, several meters, stone pillars. Which in the language of the Celts, the indigenous inhabitants of the peninsula, are called menhirs.
Already in those days there was a belief in the afterlife, as evidenced by dolmens - tombs that were originally used for burials: walls made of huge stone slabs were covered with a roof made of the same monolithic stone block, and then for worshiping the sun. The locations of menhirs and dolmens were considered sacred.
ANCIENT EGYPT
One of the oldest and most beautiful cultures of antiquity is the culture of Ancient Egypt. The Egyptians, like many people of that time, were very religious; they believed that the soul of a person continues to exist after his death and visits the body from time to time. That is why the Egyptians so diligently preserved the bodies of the dead; they were embalmed and stored in secure burial structures. So that the deceased could enjoy all the benefits in the afterlife, he was given with him all kinds of richly decorated household and luxury items, as well as figurines of servants. They also created a sculpture of the deceased (statue), in case the body could not withstand the onslaught of time, so that the soul returning from the other world could find the earthly shell. The body and everything necessary was walled up in a pyramid - a masterpiece of ancient Egyptian building art.
With the help of slaves, during his lifetime, huge stone blocks for the royal tomb were cut out of the rocks, dragged and placed in place. Due to the low level of technology
each such construction cost several hundred, or even thousands human lives. The greatest and most striking structure of this kind is included in the famous ensemble of the pyramids at Giza. This is the pyramid of Pharaoh Cheops. Its height is 146 meters and, for example, St. Isaac's Cathedral can easily fit in it. Over time, large step pyramids began to be built, the oldest of which is located in the Sahara, and was built four and a half millennia ago. They stun the imagination with their size, geometric accuracy, and the amount of labor spent on their construction. The carefully polished surfaces sparkled dazzlingly in the rays of the southern sun, leaving an indelible impression on visiting merchants and wanderers.
On the banks of the Nile, entire “cities of the dead” were formed, next to which stood temples in honor of the gods. Huge gates formed by two massive stone blocks and pylons tapering upward led into their columned courtyards and halls. Roads led to the gates, framed by rows of sphinxes - statues with the body of a lion and a human or ram's head. The shape of the columns resembled plants common in Egypt: papyrus, lotus, palm. Luxor and Kariaka, which were founded around the 14th century BC, are rightfully considered to be one of the oldest temples.
Reliefs and paintings adorned the walls and columns of Egyptian buildings; they were famous for their unique methods of depicting a person. Parts of the figures were presented so that they were visible as fully as possible: the feet and head were viewed from the side, and the eyes and shoulders were viewed from the front. The point here was not a matter of inability, but of strict adherence to certain rules. A series of images followed each other in long stripes, outlined with incised contour lines and painted in beautifully chosen tones; they were accompanied by hieroglyphs - signs - pictures of the writing of the ancient Egyptians. For the most part, events from the lives of pharaohs and nobles are shown here; there are also scenes of labor. Often the Egyptians painted desired events, because they firmly believed that what was depicted would definitely come true.
The pyramid consists entirely of stone; inside it there is only a small burial chamber, to which corridors lead, walled up after the burial of the king. However, this did not stop the robbers from finding their way to the treasures hidden in the pyramid; It is no coincidence that later the construction of the pyramids had to be abandoned. Perhaps because of the looters, or perhaps because hard work They stopped building tombs on the plain; they began to cut them out of the rocks and carefully disguise the exit. Thus, thanks to chance, the tomb where Pharaoh Tutankhamun was buried was found in 1922. In our time, the construction of the Assusian Dam threatened the rock-cut temple of Abu Simbele with flooding. To save the temple, the rock in which it was carved was cut into pieces and reassembled into safe place on the high bank of the Nile.
Along with the pyramids, majestic figures brought fame to Egyptian craftsmen, the beauty of which was admired by all subsequent generations. Statues made of painted wood or polished stone were particularly graceful. Pharaohs were usually depicted in the same pose, most often standing, with their arms extended along the body and with their left leg extended forward. In pictures ordinary people there was more life and movement. Particularly captivating were the slender women in light linen robes, decorated with numerous jewelry. Portraits of that time very accurately conveyed the unique features of a person, despite the fact that among other nations idealization reigned, and some paintings were captivating with their subtlety and unnatural grace.
Ancient Egyptian art survived for about two and a half millennia thanks to beliefs and strict rules. It flourished incredibly during the reign of Pharaoh Akhenaten in the 14th century BC (wonderful images of the king’s daughters and his wife, the beautiful Nefertiti, were created, who influenced the ideal of beauty even today), but the influence of the art of other peoples, especially the Greeks, finally extinguished the flame Egyptian art by the beginning of our era.
AEGEAN CULTURE
In 19000, the English scientist Arthur Evans, along with other archaeologists, conducted excavations on the island of Crete. They were looking for confirmation of the stories of the ancient Greek singer Homer, which he told in ancient myths and poems, about the splendor of Cretan palaces and the power of King Minos. And they found traces of a distinctive culture that began to take shape about 5,000 years ago on the islands and coast of the Aegean Sea and which, based on the name of the sea, was later called Aegean or, based on the names of the main centers, Crete-Mykonian. This culture lasted for almost 2,000 years, but the warlike Greeks, who came from the north, displaced it in the 12th century BC. However
Aegean culture did not disappear without a trace; it left monuments of amazing beauty and subtlety of taste.
Only partially preserved. The Kios Palace was the largest. It consisted of hundreds of different rooms grouped around a large front courtyard. These included a throne room, columned halls, viewing terraces, even bathrooms. Their water pipes and baths have survived to this day. The walls of the bathrooms are decorated with murals depicting dolphins and flying fish, so appropriate for such a place. The palace had an extremely intricate plan. The passages and corridors suddenly turn, turn into ascents and descents of stairs, and besides, the palace was multi-story. It is not surprising that a myth subsequently arose about the Cretan labyrinth, where a monstrous man-bull lived and from which it was impossible to find a way out. The labyrinth was associated with the bull, because in Crete it was considered a sacred animal and every now and then caught the eye - both in life and in art. Since most of the rooms did not have external walls - only internal partitions - windows could not be cut into them. The rooms were illuminated through holes in the ceiling, in some places these were “light wells” that ran through several floors. The peculiar columns expanded upward and were painted in solemn red, black and yellow colors. The wall paintings delighted the eye with cheerful colorful harmonies. The surviving parts of the paintings represent important events, boys and girls during sacred games with the bull, goddesses, priestesses, plants and animals. The walls were also decorated with painted reliefs. The images of people are reminiscent of ancient Egyptian ones: faces and legs are on the side, and shoulders and eyes are in front, but their movements are more free and natural than on Egyptian reliefs.
Many small sculptures have been found in Crete, especially figurines of goddesses with snakes: snakes were considered guardians of the hearth. Goddesses in frilly skirts, tight open bodices and high hairstyles look very flirty. The Cretans were excellent masters of ceramics: clay vessels are beautifully painted, especially those where sea animals are depicted with great vividness, for example, octopuses, covering the rounded body of the vase with their tentacles.
In the 15th century BC, the Achaeans, who had previously been subordinate to the Cretans, came from the Peloponnese peninsula and destroyed the Palace of Knossos. From that time on, power in the Aegean Sea region passed into the hands of the Achaeans until they were conquered by other Greek tribes - the Dorians.
On the Peloponnese peninsula, the Achaeans built powerful fortresses of Mycenae and Tiryns. On the mainland, the danger of enemy attack was much greater than on the island, so both settlements were built on hills and surrounded by walls made of huge stones. It is difficult to imagine that a person can cope with such stone hulks, so subsequent generations created a myth about the giants - the Cyclopes, who helped people build these walls. Wall paintings and artistically executed household items were also found here. However, compared to the cheerful and close to nature Cretan art, the art of the Achaeans looks different: it is more severe and courageous, glorifying war and hunting.
The entrance to the long-ruined Mycenaean fortress is still guarded by two lions carved in stone above the famous Lion Gate. Nearby are the tombs of the rulers, which were first explored by the German merchant and archaeologist Heinrich Schliemann (1822-1890). Since childhood, he dreamed of finding and excavating the city of Troy; the ancient Greek singer Homer told about the war between the Trojans and the Achaeans and the death of the city (12th century BC) in the poem “Iliad”. Indeed, Schliemann managed to find the ruins of a city on the northern tip of Asia Minor (in present-day Turkey), which is considered ancient Troy. Unfortunately , due to excessive haste and lack of special education, he destroyed a significant part of what he was looking for.Nevertheless, he made many valuable finds and enriched the knowledge of his time about this distant and interesting era.
ANCIENT GREECE
Without a doubt, the art of Ancient Greece had the greatest influence on subsequent generations. Its calm and majestic beauty, harmony and clarity served as a model and source for later eras cultural history.
Greek antiquity is called antiquity, and Ancient Rome is also classified as antiquity.
It took several centuries before the Dorian tribes, who arrived from the north in the 12th century BC, by the 6th century BC. created a highly developed art. This was followed by three periods in the history of Greek art:
1) archaic, or ancient period - from approximately 600 to 480 BC, when the Greeks repelled the invasion of the Persians and, having freed their land from the threat of conquest, were again able to create freely and calmly;
2) classic, or heyday, from 480 to 323 BC. - the year of the death of Alexander the Great, who conquered vast areas, very different in their cultures; this diversity of cultures was one of the reasons for the decline of classical Greek art;
3) Hellenism, or late period; it ended in 30 BC, when the Romans conquered Greek-influenced Egypt.
Greek culture spread far beyond the borders of its homeland - to Asia Minor and Italy, to Sicily and other islands of the Mediterranean, to North Africa and other places where the Greeks founded their settlements. Greek cities were even located on the northern coast of the Black Sea.
The greatest achievement of Greek building art was the temples. The oldest ruins of temples date back to the archaic era, when yellowish limestone and white marble began to be used as building materials instead of wood. It is believed that the prototype for the temple was the ancient dwelling of the Greeks - a rectangular structure with two columns in front of the entrance. From this simple building, various types of temples, more complex in their layout, grew over time. Usually the temple stood on a stepped base. It consisted of a windowless room where a statue of the deity was located, the building was surrounded by one or two rows of columns. They supported the floor beams and the gable roof. In the dimly lit interior, only priests could visit the statue of the god, but the people saw the temple only from the outside. Obviously, therefore, the ancient Greeks paid main attention to the beauty and harmony of the external appearance of the temple.
The construction of the temple was subject to certain rules. The dimensions, proportions of parts and number of columns were precisely established.
Three styles dominated in Greek architecture: Doric, Ionic, Corinthian. The oldest of them was the Doric style, which developed already in the archaic era. He was courageous, simple and powerful. It got its name from the Doric tribes that created it. The Doric column is heavy, slightly thickened just below the middle - it seems to have slightly swelled under the weight of the ceiling. The upper part of the column - the capital - is formed by two stone slabs; the bottom plate is round and the top plate is square. The upward direction of the column is emphasized by vertical grooves. The ceiling, supported by columns, in its upper part is surrounded along the entire perimeter of the temple by a strip of frieze decoration. It consists of alternating plates: some have two vertical depressions, others usually have reliefs. Protruding cornices run along the edge of the roof: on both narrow sides of the temple, triangles are formed under the roof - pediments, which were decorated with sculptures. Today the surviving parts of the temples white: the paints that covered them crumbled over time. At one time their friezes and cornices were painted red and blue.
The Ionic style originated in the Ionian region of Asia Minor. From here he already penetrated into the Greek regions proper. Compared to Doric, Ionic style columns are more elegant and slender. Each column has its own foundation - a base. The middle part of the capital resembles a pillow with corners twisted into a spiral, the so-called. in volutes.
In the Hellenistic era, when architecture began to strive for greater splendor, Corinthian capitelli began to be used most often. They are richly decorated with plant motifs, among which images of acanthus leaves predominate.
It so happened that time was kind to the oldest Doric temples, mainly outside Greece. Several such temples have survived on the island of Sicily and in southern Italy. The most famous of them is the temple of the sea god Poseidon in Paestum, near Naples, which looks somewhat ponderous and squat. Of the early Doric temples in Greece itself, the most interesting is the temple of the supreme god Zeus, now standing in ruins, in Olympia, the sacred city of the Greeks, where the Olympic Games began.
The heyday of Greek architecture began in the 5th century BC. This classical era is inextricably linked with the name of the famous statesman Pericles. During his reign, grandiose construction work began in Athens, the largest cultural and art center Greece. The main construction took place on the ancient fortified hill of the Acropolis. Even from the ruins you can imagine how beautiful the Acropolis was in its time. A wide marble staircase led up the hill. To her right, on a raised platform, like a precious casket, there is a small elegant temple to the goddess of victory Nike. Through gates with columns, the visitor entered the square, in the center of which stood a statue of the patroness of the city, the goddess of wisdom Athena; further on one could see the Erechtheion, a unique and complex temple in plan. His distinguishing feature- a portico protruding from the side, where the ceilings were supported not by columns, but by marble sculptures in the form of a female figure, the so-called. Caryatids.
The main building of the Acropolis is the Parthenon Temple dedicated to Athena. This temple - the most perfect structure in the Doric style - was completed almost two and a half thousand years ago, but we know the names of its creators: their names were Iktin and Kallikrates. In the temple there was a statue of Athena, sculpted by the great sculptor Phidias; one of the two marble friezes, a 160-meter ribbon encircling the temple, represented the festive procession of the Athenians. Phidias also took part in the creation of this magnificent relief, which depicted about three hundred human figures and two hundred horses. The Parthenon has been in ruins for about 300 years - ever since in the 17th century, during the siege of Athens by the Venetians, the Turks who ruled there built a gunpowder warehouse in the temple. Most of the reliefs that survived the explosion were taken to London, to the British Museum, by the Englishman Lord Elgin at the beginning of the 19th century.
As a result of the conquests of Alexander the Great in the second half of the 4th century BC. the influence of Greek culture and art spread over vast territories. New cities arose; largest centers took shape, however, outside Greece. These are, for example, Alexandria in Egypt and Pergamum in Asia Minor, where construction activity was on the greatest scale. In these areas the Ionic style was preferred; An interesting example of it was the huge tombstone of the Asia Minor king Mavsol, ranked among the seven wonders of the world. It was a burial chamber on a high rectangular base, surrounded by a colonnade, and above it rose a stone step pyramid, topped with a sculptural image of a quadriga, which was ruled by Mausolus himself. After this structure, other large ceremonial funeral structures were subsequently called mausoleums.
In the Hellenistic era, less attention was paid to temples, and colonnaded squares for walks, open-air amphitheaters, libraries, various kinds of public buildings, palaces and sports facilities were built. Residential buildings were improved: they became two- and three-story, with large gardens. Luxury became the goal, and different styles were mixed in architecture.
Greek sculptors gave the world works that aroused the admiration of many generations. The oldest sculptures known to us arose in the archaic era. They are somewhat primitive: their motionless pose, hands tightly pressed to the body, and gaze directed forward are dictated by the narrow long stone block from which the statue was carved. She usually has one leg pushed forward to maintain balance. Archaeologists have found many such statues depicting naked young men and girls dressed in flowing, loose folds. Their faces are often enlivened by a mysterious “archaic” smile.
The main business of sculptors classical era was the creation of statues of gods and heroes. All Greek gods were similar to ordinary people, both in their appearance and way of life. They were portrayed as people, but strong, well-developed physically and with a beautiful face. Sometimes they were depicted naked to show the beauty of a harmoniously developed body. Temples were also decorated with reliefs; Secular images were in fashion, for example, statues of prominent statesmen, heroes, and famous warriors.
5th century BC famous for the great sculptors Myron, Phidias and Polycletus, each of them brought a fresh spirit to the art of sculpture and brought it closer to reality. Young naked athletes of Polykleitos, for example his "Doriphoros", rest on only one leg, the other is left freely. In this way, the figure could be turned around and a sense of movement could be created. But standing marble figures could not be given more expressive gestures or complex poses: the statue could lose its balance, and the fragile marble could break. One of the first to solve this problem was Miron (the creator of the famous “Discoball”), he replaced fragile marble with more durable bronze. One of the first, but not the only one. Phidias then creates a magnificent bronze statue of Athena on the Acropolis and a 12-meter-tall gold and ivory statue of Athena in the Parthenon, which later disappeared without a trace. The same fate awaited a huge statue of Zeus seated on the throne, made from the same materials; it was made for the temple at Olympia - one of the seven wonders. Phidias' achievements do not end there: he supervised the work of decorating the Parthenon with friezes and pediment groups.
These days, the delightful sculptures of the Greeks, created in their heyday, seem a little cold. True, the coloring that enlivened them at one time is missing; but their indifferent and similar faces are even more alien to us. Indeed, the Greek sculptors of that time did not try to express any feelings or experiences on the faces of the statues. Their goal was to show perfect bodily beauty. That is why dilapidated statues, some even without heads, inspire us with a feeling of deep admiration.
If before the 4th century sublime and serious images were created, designed to be viewed from the front, then new Age leaned towards an expression of tenderness and softness. Sculptors such as Praxiteles and Lysippos tried to impart the warmth and thrill of life to a smooth marble surface in their sculptures of naked gods and goddesses. They also found the opportunity to diversify the poses of the statues, creating balance with the help of appropriate supports (Hermes, the young messenger of the gods, leans on a tree trunk). Such statues could be viewed from all sides - this was another innovation.
Hellenism in sculpture enhances the forms, everything becomes lush and a little exaggerated. IN works of art excessive passions are shown, or excessive closeness to nature is noticeable. At this time he began to diligently copy the statues of former times; Thanks to copies, today we know many monuments - either irretrievably lost or not yet found. Marble sculptures that conveyed strong feelings were created in the 4th century BC. Skopas. His largest work known to us is his participation in the decoration of the mausoleum in Halicarnassus with sculptural reliefs. Among the most famous works Hellenistic era - reliefs of the large altar in Pergamum depicting the legendary battle; a statue of the goddess Aphrodite found at the beginning of the last century on the island of Melos, as well as the sculptural group “Laocoon”. This sculpture conveys with ruthless verisimilitude the physical torment and fear of the Trojan priest and his sons, who were strangled by snakes.
Vase paintings occupy a special place in Greek painting. They were often performed by master ceramists with great skill; they are also interesting because they tell about the life of the ancient Greeks, about their appearance, household items, customs and much more. In this sense, they tell us even more than sculptures. However, there were also scenes from the Homeric epic, numerous myths about gods and heroes, and festivals and sports competitions were depicted on vases.
To make the vase, silhouettes of people and animals were applied to the exposed red surface with black varnish. The outlines of the details were scratched onto them with a needle - they appeared in the form of a thin red line. But this technique was inconvenient, and later they began to leave the figures red and paint the spaces between them black. This way it was more convenient to draw the details - they were done on a red background with black lines.
From this we can conclude that in ancient times painting flourished (this is evidenced by dilapidated temples and houses). Those. Despite all the difficulties of life, man has always strived for beauty.
ETRUSIAN CULTURE
The Etruscans lived in Northern Italy around the 8th century BC. Only pitiful scraps and scant information about the great culture have survived to this day. Because The Romans, freed from Etruscan rule in the 4th century BC, razed their cities to the ground. This prevented scientists from fully understanding the Etruscan writing. However, they left untouched the “cities of the dead” - cemeteries, which sometimes exceeded the cities of the living in size. The Etruscans had a cult of the dead: they believed in the afterlife and wanted to make it pleasant for the dead. Therefore, their art, which served death, was full of life and bright joy. The paintings on the walls of the tombs depicted the best aspects of life - holidays with music and dancing, sports competitions, hunting scenes or a pleasant stay with the family. Sarcophagi - the beds of that time - were made of terracotta, i.e. baked clay. Sarcophagi were made for sculptures of married couples, who lay on them while having a friendly conversation or having a meal.
Many craftsmen from Greece worked in Etruscan cities; they taught their skills to young Etruscans and thereby influenced their culture. Apparently, the characteristic smile on the faces of Etruscan statues was borrowed from the Greeks - it strongly resembles the “archaic” smile of early Greek statues. And yet, these painted terracottas retained the facial features inherent in Etruscan sculptures - a large nose, slightly slanted almond-shaped eyes under heavy eyelids, full lips. The Etruscans were good at bronze casting techniques. A clear confirmation of this is the famous statue of the Capitoline Wolf in Etruria. According to legend, she fed two brothers Romulus, the founder of Rome, and Remus with her milk.
The Etruscans built their extraordinary beautiful temples from wood. In front of the rectangular building was a portico with simple columns. Wooden floor beams made it possible to place columns at a considerable distance from each other. The roof had a strong slope, the role of a frieze was played by rows of painted clay slabs. The most distinctive feature of the temple was its high base, which was inherited by the Roman builders. The Etruscans left another important innovation as a legacy to the Romans - the technique of vaulting. The Romans subsequently achieved unprecedented heights in the construction of vaulted ceilings.
CULTURE OF ANCIENT ROME
The Roman state arose in the 1st millennium BC. around the city of Rome. It began to expand its possessions at the expense of neighboring peoples. The Roman state existed for about a thousand years and lived through the exploitation of slave labor and conquered countries. During its heyday, Rome owned all the lands adjacent to the Mediterranean Sea - both in Europe and in Asia and Africa. Strict laws and a strong army made it possible to successfully rule the country for a long time. Even art, and especially architecture, was called upon to help. With their incredible structures, they showed the whole world the unshakable power of state power.
The Romans were among the first to use lime mortar to hold stones together. This was a huge step forward in construction technology. Now it was possible to build structures with a more varied layout and cover large interior spaces. For example, 40-meter (in diameter) premises of the Roman pantheon (temple of all gods). And the dome that covered this building is still a model for architects and builders.
Having adopted the Corinthian style of columns from the Greeks, they considered it the most magnificent. In Roman buildings, however, columns began to lose their original purpose of being a support for any part of the building. Because arches and vaults survived without them, columns soon served simply as decoration. Pilasters and half-columns began to take their place.
Roman architecture reached its greatest flourishing during the era of the emperors (the first centuries AD). The most remarkable monuments of Roman architecture date back to this time. Each ruler considered it a matter of honor to build elegant squares surrounded by colonnades and public buildings. Emperor Augustus, who lived at the turn of the last era and our era, boasted that he found the capital made of brick, but left it marble. Numerous ruins that have survived to this day give an idea of the courage and scope of construction endeavors of that time. Triumphal arches were erected in honor of the victorious commanders. Entertainment buildings gained incredible popularity and were distinguished by their architectural splendor. Thus, the largest Roman circus, the Colosseum, accommodated 50,000 spectators. Don’t be confused by such numbers, because already in ancient times the population of Rome numbered in the millions.
However, the cultural level of the state was lower than the level of culture of some conquered peoples. Therefore, many beliefs and myths were borrowed from the Greeks and Etruscans.
§ 1. How did primitive man become intelligent?
Objective of the lesson. Be able to explain concepts: work, abilities, creativity.
Once upon a time, there lived on Earth people who were completely different from modern man. These were primitive people. They lived in caves and dressed in animal skins. (You will learn more about the primitive era in history lessons Ancient world.)
It is difficult to imagine that primitive people were our ancestors.
But it is so. After many millions of years, man appeared modern look (reasonable man) - just like you and me. How did this happen?
Ancient man needed to get food for himself, sew clothes and build a home.
![](https://i2.wp.com/litra.info/image/300/300/1!/book/1145/i_002.jpg)
That was not easy. It took a lot of effort and labor. The more complex tasks a person set for himself, the more perfect his work became. The tools he used in his work also improved. With the help of a stone ax, a wooden spear, and a bone knife, he obtained food for himself and sewed clothes from skins. Primitive man turned into a skilled person. His hands became dexterous. The brain developed.
![](https://i0.wp.com/litra.info/image/300/300/1!/book/1145/i_003.jpg)
At first he hunted animals, and then began to tame them. Sheep, goats, pigs and cows gradually became domestic animals. Previously, he dug up edible roots and picked the fruits of wild plants, but now he began to sow barley and wheat, and bake hearty cakes from flour. Previously, he wandered through forests, mountains and valleys in search of food, but now he began to intelligently plan his work. I thought about how to grow crops, have sheep or cows, build a pen or barn for them.
Labor helped primitive people develop their capabilities. They learned to speak clearly and communicate with each other. Got some free time for creativity, that is, to create completely new, hitherto unknown tools, decorations, images.
A lot of time will pass before a person learns to write and pass on his knowledge and experience to those who will live after him. He will learn to know himself and the world.
Yes, step by step ancient man, powerless before the vagaries of nature, turned into a rational being, a modern human being.
![](https://i1.wp.com/litra.info/image/300/300/1!/book/1145/i_004.jpg)
Questions and tasks for the paragraph
1. How did primitive people live? Look at the illustrations for the paragraph.
2. Highlight the reasons that contributed to the transformation of primitive man into intelligent modern man.
3. What role did labor play in this? Give examples of how work influenced human development.
4 * . Using additional literature and Internet resources, define the concept of “labor.”
5. How did ancient man understand the world?
Read, retell, discuss
Young Bars
The tribe that had camped near Mount Big Spear a few months ago was worried. The young man Bars refused to go hunting with all the men. “You will die of hunger,” the elder told him. “We will miss you.” To this Bars replied: “Don’t worry about me. I know what I do". While his fellow tribesmen were hunting, he collected various herbs and roots, saying: “Here is my meat. And here is my meat." And he put the plants in a bag woven from grass.
He loved to sit for long hours on the bank of the stream. Appeared on the wet sand beautiful patterns And mysterious signs. The tribe members really liked these signs. They copied them on small flat stones and took them with them for good luck.
The tribesmen watched the strange young man for a long time. They could not explain his eccentricities. He did not hunt, but he was healthy, strong, and never got sick. And then they decided to choose him as the Keeper of the Secret: after all, he knew something that they did not know.
...Bars was the first among them to think independently - a primitive scientist.
![](https://i2.wp.com/litra.info/image/300/300/1!/book/1145/i_005.jpg)
Finish the story
A ten-year-old girl from a hill tribe caught a fawn. The elders told her to bring the fawn to the fire in the evening to eat it. But the kind girl fell in love with the baby deer...
Find related words
Capabilities. Creation. Work. Human.
Reflecting on what has happened
1. Were primitive people cruel or kind?
2. Did they care about the children?
3 * . Using a dictionary or the Internet, formulate what abilities are and what abilities you had primitive people.
Work with drawings
Look at the drawings and choose which of them relate to primitive society, and which to a later period of time and modernity. Make up short stories.
![](https://i2.wp.com/litra.info/image/300/300/1!/book/1145/i_006.jpg)
Play
Primitive man finds himself in a modern department store. He is hungry and wants to find some clothes. The sellers are trying to teach him how to behave properly in the store.
![](https://i0.wp.com/litra.info/image/300/300/1!/book/1145/i_007.jpg)
Fill out the diagram
Using your knowledge of the history of the Ancient World, fill out the diagram of the transformation of primitive man into modern man.
The first ideas about the Earth and its shape developed gradually. At first they were very far from modern ones. IN Ancient India They believed that the Earth lies on the backs of three elephants, and they stand on a huge turtle.
In a more complete description, the ancient Indians represented the Earth as
hemisphere resting on elephants. The elephants stood on a huge turtle,
and the turtle is on a snake, which, curled up in a ring, closes the near-earth space.
![](https://i2.wp.com/shkolnaiapora.ru/wp-content/uploads/2019/09/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B4%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B9-%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%85-%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%B9%D1%86%D0%B5%D0%B2-%D0%BE-%D0%B7%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%BB%D0%B5.jpg)
When animals began to move, earthquakes occurred on Earth.
In the view of the ancient Egyptians: below is the Earth (god of the earth Geb), above it is the goddess of the sky (sky goddess Nut), to the left and right is the ship of the sun god (sun god Ra), showing the path of the Sun across the sky from sunrise to sunset.
![](https://i2.wp.com/shkolnaiapora.ru/wp-content/uploads/2019/09/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B4%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B9-%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%85-%D0%B5%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%BF%D1%82%D1%8F%D0%BD-%D0%BE-%D0%B7%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%BB%D0%B5.png)
To the ancient Slavs, the Earth seemed like a large egg, inside of which there was a flat Earth, and in the upper part there was a world of people,
and at the bottom there is a night country. Around the earth, like a protein, there are 9 heavens, each of which had its own purpose - one for the sun and stars, the second for the month, the third for clouds and winds.
![](https://i0.wp.com/shkolnaiapora.ru/wp-content/uploads/2019/09/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B4%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5-%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%8F%D0%BD-%D0%BE-%D0%97%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%BB%D0%B5.jpg)
IN Ancient Rus' believed that the Earth is flat, that it is such a flat thick pancake that lies on the backs of three huge fish or whales swimming on
the surface of the vast ocean.
![](https://i2.wp.com/shkolnaiapora.ru/wp-content/uploads/2019/09/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B4%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5-%D0%BE-%D0%97%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%BB%D0%B5-%D0%B2-%D0%94%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%B9-%D0%A0%D1%83%D1%81%D0%B8.jpg)
The inhabitants of the Babylonian kingdom imagined the Earth in the form of a mountain. On the western slope of which is Babylonia. To the south of Babylon lies the sea, and to the east there are mountains that they did not dare cross. That’s why it seemed to them that Babylonia was located on the western slope of the “world” mountain.
![](https://i1.wp.com/shkolnaiapora.ru/wp-content/uploads/2019/09/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B4%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5-%D0%BE-%D0%97%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%BB%D0%B5-%D0%B6%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B9-%D0%92%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B0.png)
The ancient Greeks imagined the Earth as a disk. The land is washed on all sides by the Ocean River. A copper firmament stretches above the Earth, along which the Sun moves.
![](https://i0.wp.com/shkolnaiapora.ru/wp-content/uploads/2019/09/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B4%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5-%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%85-%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B2-%D0%BE-%D0%97%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%BB%D0%B5.jpg)
The Vikings believed that the world began in northern ice. At the center of the world is a giant ash tree. At its roots there is a cold underground kingdom, in which giants live, the crown is inhabited by gods, and the world of people is located in the middle of the trunk. A squirrel constantly runs around this tree, bringing news to the eagle perched high in the branches, and to the snake hiding in the roots.
![](https://i2.wp.com/shkolnaiapora.ru/wp-content/uploads/2019/09/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B4%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5-%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%B2-%D0%BE-%D0%97%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%BB%D0%B5.jpg)
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