Genres in Old Russian literature. Lesson
In this article we will look at the features ancient Russian literature. Literature Ancient Rus' was first of all church. After all, book culture in Rus' appeared with the adoption of Christianity. Monasteries became centers of writing, and the first literary monuments were mainly works of a religious nature. Thus, one of the first original (that is, not translated, but written by a Russian author) works was the “Sermon on Law and Grace” by Metropolitan Hilarion. The author proves the superiority of Grace (the image of Jesus Christ is associated with it) over the Law, which, according to the preacher, is conservative and nationally limited.
Literature was created not for entertainment, but for teaching. Considering the features of ancient Russian literature, it should be noted that it is instructive. She teaches to love God and her Russian land; she creates images of ideal people: saints, princes, faithful wives.
Let us note one seemingly insignificant feature of ancient Russian literature: it was handwritten. Books were created in a single copy and only then copied by hand when it was necessary to make a copy or the original text became unusable over time. This gave the book special value and generated respect for it. In addition, for the Old Russian reader, all books traced their origins to the main one - the Holy Scriptures.
Since the literature of Ancient Rus' was fundamentally religious, the book was seen as a storehouse of wisdom, a textbook of righteous life. Old Russian literature is not fiction, but modern meaning this word. She goes out of her way avoids fiction and strictly follows the facts. The author does not show his individuality; he hides behind the narrative form. He does not strive for originality; for the ancient Russian writer it is more important to stay within the framework of tradition, not to break it. Therefore, all lives are similar to one another, all biographies of princes or military stories are compiled according to a general plan, in compliance with the “rules”. When “The Tale of Bygone Years” tells us about Oleg’s death from his horse, this beautiful poetic legend sounds like a historical document; the author really believes that everything happened that way.
The hero of ancient Russian literature does not have no personality, no character in our view today. Man's destiny is in the hands of God. And at the same time, his soul acts as an arena for the struggle between good and evil. The first will win only when a person lives by moral rules given once and for all.
Of course, in Russian medieval works we will not find either individual characters or psychologism - not because ancient Russian writers did not know how to do this. In the same way, icon painters created planar rather than three-dimensional images, not because they could not write “better,” but because they were faced with other artistic tasks: the face of Christ cannot be similar to an ordinary human face. An icon is a sign of holiness, not a depiction of a saint.
The literature of Ancient Rus' adheres to the same aesthetic principles: it creates faces, not faces, gives the reader example of correct behavior rather than depicting a person's character. Vladimir Monomakh behaves like a prince, Sergius of Radonezh behaves like a saint. Idealization is one of the key principles of ancient Russian art.
Old Russian literature in every possible way avoids mundaneness: she does not describe, but narrates. Moreover, the author does not narrate on his own behalf, he only conveys what is written in the sacred books, what he read, heard or saw. There can be nothing personal in this narrative: no manifestation of feelings, no individual manner. (“The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” in this sense is one of the few exceptions.) Therefore, many works of the Russian Middle Ages anonymous, the authors do not even assume such immodesty - to put your name. And the ancient reader cannot even imagine that the word is not from God. And if God speaks through the mouth of the author, then why does he need a name, a biography? That is why the information available to us about ancient authors is so scarce.
At the same time, in ancient Russian literature a special national ideal of beauty, captured by ancient scribes. First of all, this is spiritual beauty, the beauty of the Christian soul. In Russian medieval literature, in contrast to Western European literature of the same era, the knightly ideal of beauty - the beauty of weapons, armor, and victorious battle - is much less represented. The Russian knight (prince) wages war for the sake of peace, and not for the sake of glory. War for the sake of glory and profit is condemned, and this is clearly seen in “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign.” Peace is assessed as an unconditional good. The ancient Russian ideal of beauty presupposes a wide expanse, an immense, “decorated” earth, and it is decorated with temples, because they were created specifically for the exaltation of the spirit, and not for practical purposes.
The attitude of ancient Russian literature is also connected with the theme of beauty to oral and poetic creativity, folklore. On the one hand, folklore was of pagan origin, and therefore did not fit into the framework of the new, Christian worldview. On the other hand, he could not help but penetrate literature. After all, the written language in Rus' from the very beginning was Russian, and not Latin, as in Western Europe, and there was no impassable border between the book and the spoken word. Folk ideas about beauty and goodness also generally coincided with Christian ideas; Christianity penetrated folklore almost unhindered. Therefore, the heroic epic (epics), which began to take shape in the pagan era, presents its heroes both as patriotic warriors and as defenders of the Christian faith, surrounded by “filthy” pagans. Just as easily, sometimes almost unconsciously, ancient Russian writers use folklore images and stories.
The religious literature of Rus' quickly outgrew its narrow church framework and became truly spiritual literature, which created a whole system of genres. Thus, “The Sermon on Law and Grace” belongs to the genre of a solemn sermon delivered in church, but Hilarion not only proves the Grace of Christianity, but also glorifies the Russian land, combining religious pathos with patriotic ones.
Genre of life
The most important genre for ancient Russian literature was the hagiography, the biography of a saint. At the same time, the task was pursued, by telling about the earthly life of a saint canonized by the church, to create an image of an ideal person for the edification of all people.
IN " Lives of the Holy Martyrs Boris and Gleb"Prince Gleb appeals to his killers with a request to spare him: “Do not cut the ear, which is not yet ripe, filled with the milk of goodness! Do not cut the vine, which is not yet fully grown, but bears fruit!” Abandoned by his squad, Boris in his tent “cries with a broken heart, but is joyful in his soul”: he is afraid of death and at the same time he realizes that he is repeating the fate of many saints who accepted martyrdom for their faith.
IN " Lives of Sergius of Radonezh“It is said that the future saint in his adolescence had difficulty comprehending literacy, lagged behind his peers in learning, which caused him a lot of suffering; when Sergius retired into the desert, a bear began to visit him, with whom the hermit shared his meager food, it happened that the saint gave the last piece of bread to the beast.
In the traditions of life in the 16th century, “ The Tale of Peter and Fevronia of Murom”, but it already sharply diverged from the canons (norms, requirements) of the genre and therefore was not included in the collection of lives of the “Great Chet-Minea” along with other biographies. Peter and Fevronia are real historical figures who reigned in Murom in the 13th century, Russian saints. The author of the 16th century produced not a hagiography, but an entertaining story, built on fairy-tale motifs, glorifying the love and loyalty of the heroes, and not just their Christian deeds.
A " Life of Archpriest Avvakum", written by himself in the 17th century, turned into a vivid autobiographical work, filled with reliable events and real people, living details, feelings and experiences of the hero-narrator, behind which stands the bright character of one of the spiritual leaders of the Old Believers.
Genre of teaching
Since religious literature was intended to educate a true Christian, teaching became one of the genres. Although this is a church genre, close to a sermon, it was also used in secular (secular) literature, since the ideas of the people of that time about the correct, righteous life did not differ from the church ones. You know" Teachings of Vladimir Monomakh", written by him around 1117 "while sitting on a sleigh" (shortly before his death) and addressed to children.
The ideal ancient Russian prince appears before us. He cares about the welfare of the state and each of his subjects, guided by Christian morality. The prince's other concern is about the church. All earthly life should be considered as work to save the soul. This is the work of mercy and kindness, and military work, and mental work. Hard work is the main virtue in Monomakh’s life. He made eighty-three major campaigns, signed twenty peace treaties, learned five languages, and did what his servants and warriors did.
Chronicles
A significant, if not the largest, part of ancient Russian literature is works of historical genres that were included in the chronicles. The first Russian chronicle - "The Tale of Bygone Years""was created at the beginning of the 12th century. Its significance is extremely great: it was proof of the right of Rus' to state independence, independence. But if the chroniclers could record recent events “according to the epics of this time,” reliably, then the events of pre-Christian history had to be restored from oral sources: legends , legends, sayings, geographical names. Therefore, the chroniclers turn to folklore. These are the legends about the death of Oleg, about Olga’s revenge on the Drevlyans, about Belgorod jelly, etc.
Already in The Tale of Bygone Years, two most important features of Old Russian literature appeared: patriotism and connections with folklore. Book-Christian and folklore-pagan traditions are closely intertwined in “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign.”
Elements of fiction and satire
Of course, ancient Russian literature was not unchanged throughout all seven centuries. We saw that over time it became more secular, elements of fiction intensified, and satirical motifs increasingly penetrated into literature, especially in the 16th-17th centuries. These are, for example, " The Tale of Misfortune", showing what troubles disobedience and the desire to “live as he pleases,” and not as his elders teach, can bring a person, and “ The Tale of Ersha Ershovich", ridiculing the so-called "voivode's court" in the tradition of a folk tale.
But in general, we can talk about the literature of Ancient Rus' as a single phenomenon, with its own enduring ideas and motives that have passed through 700 years, with its own general aesthetic principles, with a stable system of genres.
In Ancient Rus', the church played a large role in the literary process. Along with secular literature, church literature also received widespread development. Medieval literature in Rus' existed only within the framework of the handwritten tradition. Even the advent of the printing press changed the situation little until the middle of the 18th century. The writing material was parchment and specially made calfskin. Paper finally replaces parchment only in the XV-XVI centuries. They wrote with ink and cinnabar until the 19th century. used goose feathers. The high cost of the material determined the economy of writing: the text was presented in one line without a syllable division, words that were often found were abbreviated under the so-called titles. Handwriting XI-XIII centuries. in science it is called a charter due to its clear, solemn nature. A type of Old Russian book is a voluminous manuscript made up of notebooks sewn together in wooden weaving and covered with embossed leather. Already in the 11th century. Luxurious books with cinnabar letters and artistic miniatures appeared in Rus'. Their weaving was bound in gold or silver, decorated with pearls and precious stones (Ostromir Gospel (XI century) and Mstislav Gospel (XII century) 1 .
The basis of the literary language was the living spoken language of Ancient Rus', or more precisely, its regional dialects, southern and northern (Dnieper region and Novgorod the Great). At the same time, in the process of its formation, a close role was played by the language close to it, Old Church Slavonic, Church Slavonic. It was on it that the Moravian brothers Cyril and Methodius translated them in the second half of the 9th century. books of Holy Scripture. On its basis, church writing developed in Rus' and worship was conducted. Being one of the dialects of the Old Bulgarian language, Church Slavonic had a large set of abstract concepts that settled in the Old Russian language so firmly that they became its integral property: space, eternity, mind, truth.
All ancient Russian literature is divided into two parts: translated and original. Translation was considered as part of one's own national literature. The ecclesiastical nature of Old Russian literature determined the choice of translated works that existed in the handwritten tradition and the approach of the authors, which could be traced even in the description of history, in everyday stories and in other seemingly secular subjects. The initial stage of translated Old Slavic writing was determined, along with the Holy Scriptures, by the achievements of the early Christian parents of the church of the IV-VI centuries: John Chrysostom, Basil the Great, Gregory of Nyssa, Cyril of Jerusalem.
The achievements of mass literature were also translated - the Chronicle of John Malali, "Christian Topography" by Kosmi Indikoplov, apocrypha, patericon. The Psalter was the most popular.
The first original works written by East Slavic authors date back to the end of the 11th - beginning of the 12th century. Among them are such outstanding monuments as “The Tale of Bygone Years”, “The Tale of Boris and Gleb”, “The Life of Theodosius of Pechersk”, “The Word of Law and Grace”.
Genre diversity of ancient Russian literature of the 11th-12th centuries. small: chronicle, life and word.
In literary studies, a genre is usually called a type of achievement that develops gradually and develops over time. Due to the fact that medieval achievements, as a rule, pursued utilitarian wholes, functional features were always added to the formal-substantive features, which became the main ones for them. The distribution of the achievements of ancient Russian literature into genres is quite arbitrary. This happens because the East Slavic scribes themselves did not have common ideas about genre categories. Thus, the most general term “word” was used by writers to describe both the solemn language of Metropolitan Hilarion and the military tale.
Among the genres of ancient Russian literature, the central place is occupied by chronicle, which developed over eight centuries (XI-XVIII centuries). No European tradition had as many annals as the Old Russian one. Mostly, although not always, chronicle writing in Rus' was carried out by monks who had undergone special training. Chronicles were compiled on behalf of the prince, abbot or bishop, sometimes on personal initiative. If the chronicle was carried out on direct orders, it was more or less official in nature, reflecting the political position, likes and dislikes of the customer. But one should not exaggerate the official character of ancient Russian chronicles, as historical science sometimes does. In reality, the chroniclers showed independence of thought, discouraging the point of view of the broad masses on this or that event, and often criticized the actions of the princes, depicting “everything good and bad” and “without decorating the writer.”
The oldest chronicle is called “The Tale of Bygone Years” (1068). In the original, it has a longer title: “This is the story of a temporary year, where the Russian land came from, who first began to reign in Kyiv, and where the Russian land came to exist permanently.” This chronicle has come to us in handwritten copies no older than the 14th century. Of these, two are the most remarkable: collections from 1377, conventionally called the Laurentian Chronicle after the scribe-monk Laurentius, who rewrote it for the Suzdal Grand Duke Dmitry Konstantinovich, and a collection of the early 15th century, which was called the Ipatiev Chronicle after the place of preservation - the Ipatiev Monastery in Kostroma.
The main difference between both lists of the Tale is in its ending. The Laurentian Chronicle ends with a story cut short in mid-sentence about the miraculous appearance on February 11, 1110 of a pillar of fire over the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery. In the Ipatiev list, this story is completed and is followed by several more legends about 1111, 1112 and 1113. The authorship of the “Tale” is attributed to the monk of the Kiev-Pechersk Lavra Nestor, who created it around 1113.
The main idea of the achievement is deeply patriotic - the unity of the Russian land. The princely civil strife and bloody feuds that began then in the Old Russian land are condemned by the chronicler. Thus, Kyiv became the place of origin of the first all-Russian chronicle, which tells about the history of the Russian land as a whole.
Another common genre of ancient Russian literature is " life" - literally corresponds to the Greek "life". He presents biographies of famous bishops, patriarchs, monks - founders of monasteries, and less often biographies of secular persons, but only those who were considered saints by the church. Hence, life in science is often also called the term “hagiography” (writing about saints). The compilation of lives required adherence to rules and style of presentation. These included a leisurely story in the third person, compositional adherence to three parts: introduction, life itself and conclusions. The main character was portrayed as irrefutably holy, and bad guy was introduced for contrast and acted in the background. According to the retelling, Nestor the Chronicler is the author of all three first lives that have come to us - two lives of the first Christian martyrs, the prince-brothers Boris and Gleb, and the life of Abbot Theodosius, the founder of the Kiev Lavra.
Languages that were called teachings and words in ancient times belong to the genre eloquence, the “golden century” of development of which in Rus' occurred in the 12th century, but already in the 13th century. it declines and completely disappears from literary life in the 14th century.
A striking example of this genre is the “Teaching of Vladimir Monomakh,” which came to us in the Laurentian copy of the “Tale of Bygone Years” in 1096. At the beginning of the “Teaching,” one of the outstanding princes of his time, Vladimir Monomakh, gives his sons a number of moral instructions in the teaching, writing out for them quotations from the Holy Scriptures. However, very soon this theme, which moralizes, given by church tradition, develops into a political testament, into a lesson to the sons on how to reign and lead the state. There is an autobiography of the prince at the end of the Instruction.
Solemn eloquence is an area of creativity that required not only the depth of ideological concept, but also great literary skill. The oldest monument of this genre that has come down to us is “The Sermon on Law and Grace,” the authorship of which is attributed to the first Metropolitan of Kyiv Hilarion and dates back to between 1037 and 1050.
A genre is a historically established type of literary work, an abstract pattern on the basis of which specific texts are created. literary works. The system of genres of literature of Ancient Rus' differed significantly from the modern one. Old Russian literature developed largely under the influence of Byzantine literature and borrowed from it a system of genres, reworking them on a national basis: the specificity of the genres of Old Russian literature lies in their connection with traditional Russian folk art. The genres of ancient Russian literature are usually divided into primary and unifying.
Primary genres
These genres are called primary because they served as building material for unifying genres. Primary genres:
- Life
- Word
- Teaching
- Tale
Primary genres also include weather recording, chronicle story, chronicle legend and church legend.
The genre of hagiography was borrowed from Byzantium. This is the most widespread and beloved genre of ancient Russian literature. Life was an indispensable attribute when a person was canonized, i.e. were canonized. The life was created by people who directly communicated with a person or could reliably testify to his life. Life was always created after the death of a person. It performed a huge educational function, because the life of the saint was perceived as an example of a righteous life that must be imitated. In addition, life deprived a person of the fear of death, preaching the idea of immortality human soul. Life was built according to certain canons, from which they did not deviate until the 15-16 centuries.
Canons of Life
- The pious origin of the hero of the life, whose parents must have been righteous. The saint's parents often begged God.
- A saint was born a saint, not made one.
- The saint was distinguished by an ascetic lifestyle, spending time in solitude and prayer.
- A mandatory attribute of the life was a description of the miracles that occurred during the life of the saint and after his death.
- The saint was not afraid of death.
- The life ended with the glorification of the saint.
One of the first works of the hagiographic genre in ancient Russian literature was the life of the holy princes Boris and Gleb.
Old Russian eloquence
This genre was borrowed by ancient Russian literature from Byzantium, where eloquence was a form of oratory. In ancient Russian literature, eloquence appeared in three varieties:
- Didactic (instructive)
- Political
- Solemn
Teaching
Teaching is a type of genre of ancient Russian eloquence. Teaching is a genre in which ancient Russian chroniclers tried to present a model of behavior for any ancient Russian man: both for the prince and for the commoner. The most striking example of this genre is the “Teaching of Vladimir Monomakh” included in the Tale of Bygone Years. In the Tale of Bygone Years, the Teachings of Vladimir Monomakh are dated 1096. At this time, the strife between the princes in the battle for the throne reached its climax. In his teaching, Vladimir Monomakh gives advice on how to organize your life. He says that there is no need to seek the salvation of the soul in seclusion. It is necessary to serve God by helping those in need. When going to war, you should pray - God will definitely help. Monomakh confirms these words with an example from his life: he took part in many battles - and God protected him. Monomakh says that one should look at how the natural world works and try to organize social relations according to the model of a harmonious world order. The teaching of Vladimir Monomakh is addressed to descendants.
The word is a type of genre of ancient Russian eloquence. An example of the political variety of ancient Russian eloquence is “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign.” This work is the subject of much controversy regarding its authenticity. This is because the original text of “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” has not been preserved. It was destroyed by fire in 1812. Only copies have survived. From that time on, it became fashionable to refute its authenticity. The word tells about the military campaign of Prince Igor against the Polovtsians, which took place in history in 1185. Researchers suggest that the author of “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” was one of the participants in the described campaign. Disputes about the authenticity of this work were conducted in particular because it stands out from the system of genres of ancient Russian literature due to the unusual nature of the elements used in it. artistic means and techniques. The traditional chronological principle of narration is violated here: the author is transported to the past, then returns to the present (this was not typical for ancient Russian literature), the author makes lyrical digressions, inserted episodes appear (Svyatoslav’s dream, Yaroslavna’s cry). The word contains a lot of elements of traditional oral folk art and symbols. One can clearly feel the influence of a fairy tale, an epic. The political background of the work is obvious: in the fight against a common enemy, Russian princes must be united, disunity leads to death and defeat.
Another example of political eloquence is the “Word about the Destruction of the Russian Land,” which was created immediately after the Mongol-Tatars came to Rus'. The author glorifies the bright past and mourns the present.
An example of the solemn variety of ancient Russian eloquence is the “Sermon on Law and Grace” by Metropolitan Hilarion, which was created in the first third of the 11th century. The word was written by Metropolitan Hilarion on the occasion of the completion of the construction of military fortifications in Kyiv. The word conveys the idea of the political and military independence of Rus' from Byzantium. By “Law” Hilarion understands the Old Testament, which was given to the Jews, but it does not suit the Russian and other peoples. Therefore, God gave the New Testament, which is called “Grace.” In Byzantium, Emperor Constantine is revered, who contributed to the spread and establishment of Christianity there. Hilarion says that Prince Vladimir the Red Sun, who baptized Rus', is no worse than the Byzantine emperor and should also be revered by the Russian people. The work of Prince Vladimir is continued by Yaroslav the Wise. The main idea of “The Word of Law and Grace” is that Rus' is as good as Byzantium.
A story is a text of an epic nature, telling about princes, military exploits, and princely crimes. Examples of military stories are “The Tale of the Battle of the Kalka River”, “The Tale of the Devastation of Ryazan by Batu Khan”, “The Tale of the Life of Alexander Nevsky”.
Uniting genres
Primary genres acted as part of unifying genres, such as the chronicle, chronograph, cheti-menaion, and patericon.
A chronicle is a narration of historical events. This is the most ancient genre of ancient Russian literature. In Ancient Rus', the chronicle played a very important role, because not only reported historical events of the past, but was also a political and legal document, testifying to how to act in certain situations. The oldest chronicle is the “Tale of Bygone Years,” which came to us in the lists of the Laurentian Chronicle of the 14th century and the Ipatiev Chronicle of the 15th century. The chronicle tells about the origin of the Russians, the genealogy of the Kyiv princes and the emergence of the ancient Russian state.
Chronographs are texts containing a description of the time of the 15th-16th centuries.
Cheti-menaia (literally “reading by month”) is a collection of works about holy people.
Patericon - a description of the life of the holy fathers.
Special mention should be made about the apocrypha genre. Apocrypha - literally translated from ancient Greek as “intimate, secret.” These are works of a religious and legendary nature. Apocrypha became especially popular in the 13th and 14th centuries, but the church did not recognize this genre and does not recognize it to this day.
Literature of Peter's time
The beginning of the 18th century was turbulent for Russia. The creation of our own fleet, wars for access to sea routes, the development of industry, the flourishing of trade, the construction of new cities - all this could not but affect the growth of national consciousness. People of Peter's times felt their involvement in historical events, the greatness of which they felt in their destinies. Boyar Russia is a thing of the past.
Time required work. Everyone was obliged to work for the benefit of society and the state, imitating the tireless “worker on the throne.” Every phenomenon was assessed primarily from the point of view of its usefulness. Literature could be useful if it glorified the successes of Russia and explained the sovereign's will. Therefore, the main qualities of literature of this era are topicality, life-affirming pathos and an orientation toward universal accessibility. Thus, in 1706, the so-called “school dramas” appeared, plays written by teachers of religious educational institutions.
School drama could be filled with political content. In the play, written in 1710 on the occasion of the victory at Poltava, the biblical king David is directly likened to Peter the Great: just as David defeated the giant Goliath, so Peter defeated the Swedish king Charles XII.
A large clergy class was hostile to the reforms. Peter tried unsuccessfully more than once to win over Church leaders to his side. He looked for faithful people who would have the gift of speech and persuasion and obediently carried out his line among the clergy.
Feofan Prokopovich, a church leader and writer, became such a person. Feofan's sermons are always political speeches, a talented presentation of the official point of view. They were printed in state printing houses and sent to churches. Feofan's large journalistic works - "Spiritual Regulations" (1721) and "The Truth of the Will of the Monarchs" (1722) - were written on behalf of Peter. They are devoted to justifying the unlimited power of the monarch over the lives of his subjects.
Prokopovich's poetic creativity is diverse. He composes spiritual verses, elegies, epigrams. His “Victory Song for the notorious Poltava Victory” (1709) marked the beginning of numerous eighteenth-century odes to the victories of Russian weapons.
Feofan was not only a practitioner, but also a literary theorist. He compiled the courses "Poetics" and "Rhetoric" (1706-1707) at Latin. In these works, he defended literature as an art that obeys strict rules, bringing “pleasure and benefit.” In his poems, he demanded clarity and condemned the “darkness” of learned poetry of the 17th century. In “Rhetoric,” he, following European authors, proposed distinguishing three styles: “high,” “middle,” and “low,” assigning each of them to specific genres. Prokopovich's treatises were not published in a timely manner, but became known to theorists of Russian classicism - Lomonosov studied them in manuscript.
The era of classicism
The literature of Peter the Great's time was in many ways reminiscent of the literature of the past century. New ideas were spoken in the old language - in church sermons, school dramas, handwritten stories. Only in the 30s and 40s was it completely revealed in Russian literature new page- classicism. However, like the literature of Peter the Great’s time, the work of classic writers (Kantemir, Sumarokov and others) is closely connected with the current political life of the country.
Classicism appeared in Russian literature later than in Western European literature. He was closely associated with the ideas of the European Enlightenment, such as: the establishment of firm and fair laws binding on everyone, the enlightenment and education of the nation, the desire to penetrate the secrets of the universe, the affirmation of the equality of people of all classes, recognition of the value human personality regardless of position in society.
Russian classicism is also characterized by a system of genres, an appeal to the human mind, and convention artistic images. It was important to recognize the decisive role of the enlightened monarch. The ideal of such a monarch for Russian classicism was Peter the Great.
After the death of Peter the Great in 1725, a real possibility arose of curtailing the reforms and returning to the old way of life and government. Everything that constituted the future of Russia was at risk: science, education, the duty of a citizen. That is why satire is especially characteristic of Russian classicism.
The most prominent of the first figures of the new literary era, writing in this genre, was Prince Antioch Dmitrievich Cantemir (1708-1744). His father, an influential Moldavian aristocrat, was famous writer and a historian. Prince Antiochus himself, although in writerly modesty he called his mind “the unripe fruit of short-lived science,” was in fact a highly educated man by the highest European standards. He knew Latin, French and Italian poetry perfectly. In Russia, his friends were Archbishop Feofan Prokopovich and historian V.N. Tatishchev. For the last twelve years of his life, Cantemir was an envoy to London and Paris.
From early youth, Antiochus wanted to see the noble society around him educated, free from prejudices. He considered following ancient norms and customs a prejudice.
Cantemir is better known as the author of nine satires. They expose various vices, but the poet's main enemies are the saint and the slacker - the dandy. They are displayed in the lines of the first satire “On those who blaspheme the teaching.” In the second satire, “On the Envy and Pride of Evil Nobles,” the good-for-nothing slacker Eugene is presented. He squanders the fortune of his ancestors, wearing a camisole worth an entire village, and at the same time he is jealous of his success ordinary people who achieved high ranks through their services to the king.
The idea of the natural equality of people is one of the most bold ideas literature of that time. Cantemir believed that it was necessary to educate the nobility in order to prevent the nobleman from descending to the state of an unenlightened peasant:
"It doesn't do much good to call you the king's son,
If you do not differ from a vile disposition from a hound's. "
Kantemir specifically dedicated one of his satires to education:
"The main thing of education is that
So that the heart, having driven out passions, matures
To establish good morals so that through this it will be useful
Your son was a boon to the fatherland, kind to people and always welcome. "
Cantemir also wrote in other genres. Among his works there are “high” (odes, poems), “middle” (satires, poetic letters and songs) and “low” (fables). He tried to find means in the language to write differently in different genres. But these funds were still not enough for him. The new Russian literary language was not established. How a “high” syllable differs from a “low” one was not entirely clear. Cantemir’s own style is colorful. He writes in long phrases, built according to the Latin model, with sharp syntactic shifts; there is no concern that the boundaries of the sentences coincide with the boundaries of the verse. It is very difficult to read his works.
The next prominent representative of Russian classicism, whose name is known to everyone without exception, is M.V. Lomonosov (1711-1765). Lomonosov, unlike Kantemir, rarely ridicules enemies of enlightenment. In his solemn odes, the “affirming” principle prevailed. The poet glorifies Russia's successes on the battlefield, in peaceful trade, in science and art.
“Our literature begins with Lomonosov... he was its father, its Peter the Great.” This is how V.G. determined the place and significance of Mikhail Vasilyevich Lomonosov’s work for Russian literature. Belinsky.
M.V. was born. Lomonosov near the city of Kholmogory, on the banks of the Northern Dvina, in the family of a wealthy but illiterate peasant engaged in navigation. The boy felt such a craving for learning that at the age of 12 he walked from his native village to Moscow. The poet N. Nekrasov told us “how the Arkhangelsk man, by his own and God’s will, became intelligent and great.”
In Moscow, Mikhail entered the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy and, despite the fact that he lived in dire need, he graduated brilliantly. Among the best graduates of the Academy, Lomonosov was sent to study in St. Petersburg, and then, in 1736, to Germany. There Lomonosov took a course in all sciences, both mathematical and verbal. In 1741, Mikhail Vasilyevich returned to Russia, where he served in the Academy of Sciences until the end of his life. He was patronized by Count I.I. Shuvalov, beloved of Empress Elizabeth. Therefore, Lomonosov himself was in favor, which allowed his talents to truly unfold. He did a lot scientific works. In 1755, according to his proposal and plan, Moscow University was opened. Lomonosov's official duties also included composing poems for court holidays, and most of his odes were written on such occasions.
"The Arkhangelsk peasant", the first of the figures of Russian culture to gain world fame, one of the outstanding educators and the most enlightened person of his time, one of the greatest scientists of the eighteenth century, the wonderful poet Lomonosov became a reformer of Russian versification.
In 1757, the scientist wrote a preface to the collected works “On the Use of Church Books in the Russian Language,” in which he sets out the famous theory of the “three calms.” In it, Lomonosov put forward the national language as the basis of the literary language. In the Russian language, according to Lomonosov, words according to their stylistic coloring can be divided into several genders. To the first he included the vocabulary of Church Slavonic and Russian, to the second - familiar from books and understandable Church Slavonic words, but rare in the spoken language, to the third - words of living speech that are not in church books. A separate group consisted of common people, who could only be used to a limited extent in writings. Lomonosov almost completely excludes outdated Church Slavonic words, vulgarisms and barbarisms inappropriately borrowed from foreign languages from literary writing.
Depending on the quantitative mixture of words of three kinds, one or another style is created. This is how the “three calms” of Russian poetry developed: “high” - Church Slavonic words and Russian,
“mediocre” (average) - Russian words with a small admixture of Church Slavonic words, “low” - Russian words of the colloquial language with the addition of common words and a small number of Church Slavonic words.
Each style has its own genres: “high” - heroic poems, odes, tragedies, “middle” - dramas, satires, friendly letters, elegies, “low” - comedies, epigrams, songs, fables. Such a clear distinction, theoretically very simple, in practice led to the isolation of high genres.
Lomonosov himself wrote primarily in “high” genres.
Thus, “Ode on the day of the accession to the throne of Empress Elizabeth Petrovna, 1747” is written in “high calm” and glorifies the daughter of Peter the Great. Having paid tribute to the virtues of the empress, her “meek voice,” “kind and beautiful face,” and desire to “expand science,” the poet starts talking about her father, whom he calls “a man such as has not been heard of since ages.” Peter is the ideal of an enlightened monarch who devotes all his strength to his people and state. Lomonosov's ode gives an image of Russia with its vast expanses and enormous riches. This is how the theme of the homeland and serving it arises - the leading one in Lomonosov’s work. The theme of science and knowledge of nature is closely related to this topic. It ends with a hymn to science, a call to young men to dare for the glory of the Russian land. Thus, the poet’s educational ideals found expression in the “Ode of 1747.”
"Sciences nourish youths,
Joy is served to the old,
IN happy life decorate,
In case of an accident they take care of it;
There's joy in troubles at home
And long journeys are not a hindrance.
Science is used everywhere
Among the nations and in the desert,
In the noise of the city and alone,
Sweet in peace and in work."
Faith in the human mind, the desire to know the “secrets of many worlds”, to get to the essence of phenomena through the “small sign of things” - these are the themes of the poems “Evening Reflection”, “Two astronomers happened together at a feast...”.
In order to benefit the country, you need not only hard work, but also education, says Lomonosov. He writes about the “beauty and importance of teaching” that makes a person a creator. “Use your own reason,” he urges in the poem “Listen, I ask”….
Under Catherine II, Russian absolutism achieved unprecedented power. The nobility received unheard of privileges, Russia became one of the first world powers. The tightening of serfdom became the main cause of the peasant war of 1773-1775, under the leadership of E.I. Pugacheva
Unlike European classicism, Russian classicism is more closely connected with folk traditions and oral folk art. He often uses material from Russian history rather than from antiquity.
Gabriel Romanovich Derzhavin was the last in a row of the largest representatives of Russian classicism. He was born on July 3, 1743 in the family of a small Kazan nobleman. The entire fortune of the Derzhavin family consisted of a dozen serf souls. Poverty prevented the future poet from receiving an education. Only when he was sixteen years old was he able to enter the Kazan gymnasium, and even then he studied there for only a short time. In 1762, Gabriel Derzhavin was called up for military service. Poverty had its effect here too: unlike most noble minors, he was forced to begin serving as a private and only ten years later received the rank of officer. In those years he was already a poet. Isn't it a strange combination: a private in the tsarist army and a poet? But being in a soldier's, rather than an officer's, environment allowed Derzhavin to become imbued with what is called the spirit of the Russian people. He was unusually respected by the soldiers; intimate conversations with people from Russian peasantry taught him to perceive people's need and grief as a state problem. Fame came to Derzhavin only at the age of forty, in 1783, when Catherine II read his “Ode to the wise Kirghiz-Kaisat princess Felitsa.” Not long before, in a moral tale, Catherine portrayed herself under the name of Princess Felitsa. The poet addresses Princess Felitsa, and not the Empress:
You just won’t offend the only one,
Don't insult anyone
You see the foolishness through your fingers,
The only thing you cannot tolerate is evil;
You correct misdeeds with leniency,
Like a wolf, you don’t crush people,
You know right away their price.
The highest praise is expressed in the most ordinary colloquial language. The author portrays himself as a “lazy murza”. In these mocking stanzas, readers discerned very caustic allusions to the most powerful nobles:
Then, having dreamed that I was a sultan,
I terrify the universe with my gaze,
Then suddenly, seduced by the outfit,
I'm off to the tailor for a caftan.
This is how Catherine’s almighty favorite, Prince Potemkin, is described. According to the rules of literary etiquette, all this was unthinkable. Derzhavin himself was afraid of his insolence, but the empress liked the ode. The author immediately became a famous poet and fell into favor at court.
Catherine repeatedly told Derzhavin that she expected new odes from him in the spirit of “Felitsa.” However, Derzhavin was deeply disappointed when he saw the life of Catherine the Second's court up close. In an allegorical form, the poet shows his feelings that he experiences from court life in the small poem “To the Bird.”
And well, squeeze it with your hand.
The poor thing squeaks instead of whistling,
And they keep telling her: “Sing, birdie, sing!”
He was favored by Catherine II - Felitsa - and soon received an appointment to the post of governor of the Olonets province. But Derzhavin’s bureaucratic career, despite the fact that he was not abandoned by the royal favor and received more than one position, did not work out. The reason for this was Derzhavin’s honesty and directness, his real, and not traditionally feigned, zeal for the benefit of the Fatherland. For example, Alexander I appointed Derzhavin as Minister of Justice, but then removed him from business, explaining his decision by the inadmissibility of such “zealous service.” Literary fame and public service made Derzhavin a rich man. He spent his last years in peace and prosperity, living alternately in St. Petersburg and on his own estate near Novgorod. Derzhavin’s most striking work was “Felitsa,” which made him famous. It combines two genres: ode and satire. This phenomenon was truly revolutionary for the literature of the era of classicism, because, according to the classicist theory of literary genres, ode and satire belonged to different “calms”, and mixing them was unacceptable. However, Derzhavin managed to combine not only the themes of these two genres, but also the vocabulary: “Felitsa” organically combines the words of “high calm” and vernacular. Thus, Gabriel Derzhavin, who developed the possibilities of classicism to the utmost in his works, simultaneously became the first Russian poet to overcome the classicist canons.
During the second half of the eighteenth century, along with classicism, other literary movements were formed. During the period when classicism was the leading literary movement, personality manifested itself primarily in public service. By the end of the century, a view on the value of the individual had been formed. "Man is rich in his feelings."
The Age of Sentimentalism
Since the sixties of the 18th century, a new literary trend has been emerging in Russian literature, called sentimentalism.
Like the classicists, sentimentalist writers relied on the ideas of the Enlightenment that a person’s value depended not on his belonging to the upper classes, but on his personal merits. But if for the classicists the state and public interests came first, then for the sentimentalists it was a specific person with his feelings and experiences. The classicists subordinated everything to reason, the sentimentalists to feelings and mood. Sentimentalists believed that man is good by nature, devoid of hatred, deceit, cruelty, and that social and social relations are formed on the basis of innate virtue. social instincts that unite people into society. Hence the belief of sentimentalists that it is the natural sensitivity and good inclinations of people that are the key to an ideal society. In the works of that time, the main place began to be given to the education of the soul and moral improvement. Sentimentalists considered sensitivity to be the primary source of virtue, so their poems were filled with compassion, melancholy and sadness. The genres that were preferred also changed. Elegies, messages, songs and romances took first place.
The main characters are a common person, striving to merge with nature, find peaceful silence in it and find happiness. Sentimentalism, like classicism, also suffered from certain limitations and weaknesses. In the works of this movement, sensitivity develops into melancholy, accompanied by sighs and tears.
The ideal of sensitivity greatly influenced an entire generation of educated people in both Europe and Russia, defining the lifestyle of many. Reading sentimental novels was part of the norm of behavior for an educated person. Pushkin’s Tatyana Larina, who “fell in love” with the deceptions of both Richardson and Rousseau,” thus received in the Russian wilderness the same upbringing as all the young ladies in all European capitals. To literary heroes sympathized with how real people, imitated them. In general, sentimental education brought a lot of good things.
IN last years During the reign of Catherine II (from approximately 1790 until her death in 1796), what usually happens at the end of long reigns happened in Russia: stagnation began in state affairs, the highest places were occupied by old dignitaries, educated youth did not see the opportunity to apply their strength in the service of the fatherland. Then sentimental moods came into fashion - not only in literature, but also in life.
The ruler of the thoughts of young people in the 90s was Nikolai Mikhailovich Karamzin, a writer with whose name the concept of “Russian sentimentalism” is usually associated. Born 12/1/1766 in the village. Mikhailovka, Simbirsk province. He was educated in private boarding schools in Simbirsk and Moscow. Attended lectures at Moscow University. Knew several new and ancient languages.
In 1789 - 1790 the writer took a trip to Europe. He visited Germany, Switzerland, France, England, and in Paris he witnessed the events of the French Revolution, saw and heard almost all of its figures. The trip provided Karamzin with material for his famous “Letters of a Russian Traveler,” which are not travel notes, but a work of fiction that continues the tradition of the European genre of “travel” and “novels of education.”
Returning to Russia in the summer of 1790, Karamzin developed vigorous activity, gathering young writers around him. In 1791, he began publishing the Moscow Journal, where he published his “Letters of a Russian Traveler” and stories that laid the foundation for Russian sentimentalism: “ Poor Lisa", "Natalia, the boyar's daughter."
The main task magazine Karamzin saw the re-education of “evil hearts” through the forces of art. For this, it was necessary, on the one hand, to make art understandable to people, to free the language of artistic works from pomposity, and on the other hand, to cultivate a taste for the elegant, to depict life not in all its manifestations (sometimes rough and ugly), but in those that approaching the ideal state.
In 1803 N.M. Karamzin began work on his planned “History of the Russian State” and petitioned for his official appointment as a historiographer. Having received this position, he studies numerous sources - chronicles, charters, other documents and books, and writes a number of historical works. Eight volumes of “History of the Russian State” were published in January 1818 with a circulation of 3,000 copies. and immediately sold out, so that a second edition was required. In St. Petersburg, where Karamzin moved to publish “History...”, he continued to work on the last four volumes. The 11th volume was published in 1824, and the 12th - posthumously.
Latest volumes reflected a change in the author’s views on the historical process: from an apology for a “strong personality” he moves on to assessments of historical events from a moral point of view. The significance of Karamzin’s “History...” can hardly be overestimated: it aroused interest in the past of Russia in wide circles a noble society, brought up mainly on ancient history and literature, and who knew more about the ancient Greeks and Romans than about their ancestors.
N.M. Karamzin died on May 22 (June 3), 1826.
The work of Nikolai Mikhailovich Karamzin played a huge and controversial role in Russian culture. Karamzin the writer acted as a reformer of the Russian literary language, becoming the predecessor of Pushkin; the founder of Russian sentimentalism, he created an absolutely ideal image of the people that had nothing in common with reality. Since the time of Karamzin, the language of literature has become increasingly closer to colloquial speech- first the nobles, and then the people; however, at the same time, the gap in the worldview of these two layers of Russian society became more and more apparent and intensified. As a journalist, Karamzin showed examples of the most different types periodicals and methods of biased presentation of material. As a historian and public figure, he was a convinced “Westernizer” and influenced a whole generation of creators of Russian culture who succeeded him, but he became a real educator of the nobility, forcing them (especially women) to read Russian and opening up to them the world of Russian history.
Conclusion
Thus, in the literature of the 18th century there were two movements: classicism and sentimentalism. The ideal of classic writers is a citizen and patriot who strives to work for the good of the fatherland. He must become an active creative person, fight against social vices, against all manifestations of “evil morality and tyranny.” Such a person must give up the desire for personal happiness and subordinate his feelings to duty. Sentimentalists subordinated everything to feelings, to all sorts of shades of mood. The language of their works becomes emphatically emotional. The heroes of the works are representatives of the middle and lower classes. The process of democratization of literature began in the eighteenth century.
And again, Russian reality invaded the world of literature and showed that only in the unity of the general and personal, and with the subordination of the personal to the general, can a citizen and a person be realized. But in the poetry of the late 18th century, the concept of “Russian man” was identified only with the concept of “Russian nobleman”. Derzhavin and other poets and writers of the 18th century took only the first step in understanding national character, showing the nobleman both in the service of the Fatherland and at home. Integrity and completeness inner life people have not yet been revealed.
Addition:
Literature of the 18th century.
One of the main tasks when studying literature of the 18th century is to reveal characteristic features dynamics of the historical and literary process in Russia at that time. Therefore, the main attention in the lesson is paid to the analysis of ideological and aesthetic content, the formation, interpenetration, struggle and change literary trends, as well as the activities of those writers who played a decisive role in the development of artistic creativity, literary language and aesthetic thought.
It is known that the defining stage in the life of the Russian people and in their literature in the 18th century was the period of Peter the Great's reforms, when " new Russia"
The growing interest of Russian writers of the 18th century in the human personality deepened the humanistic principle in art. And the enlightenment of Russian literature of the 18th century again entailed the affirmation of the value of man.
Since the 60s of the 18th century, along with the emergence of the sentimental-pre-romantic movement, the growth of realistic tendencies has sharply increased, inextricably linked with the further development of the satirical line. Russian literature began to look for approaches to social analysis, explaining character as a result of the influence of the environment and external circumstances on it. Analyzing works with students fiction 18th century, we pay close attention to the “result of influence” on the individual environment and external circumstances. Namely: these trends did not form into a specific ideological and aesthetic system, but the formation of realism (as well as romanticism) began in the 18th century. From this time on, the intensity of one of the main processes in the development of Russian literature began to increase - its steady democratization. Thus, schoolchildren get the idea that by the end of the century a synthesis of personal and social principles is planned within the limits of one work (ode “To Grace” by Karamzin, series works of Radishchev). And finally, in one of the most important works of Russian literature of the 18th century, “Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow,” Radishchev will come to a firm conclusion about the necessity and inevitability of a popular uprising.
When studying literature of the 18th century, students should be familiarized with the periodization in the history of Russian literature of this era. This will allow students to understand the most important processes in the development of literature of that era and its global significance. Here we can outline 4 periods:
1st period - literature of Peter's time. It is still of a transitional nature. Its peculiarity is the replacement of religious literature with secular literature.
2nd period (1730-1750) characterized by the formation of classicism, the creation of a new genre system, and the in-depth development of the literary language.
3rd period (1760 - first half of the 70s) - further evolution of classicism, the flourishing of satire, the emergence of prerequisites for the emergence of sentimentalism.
4th period (last quarter of a century) - the beginning of the crisis of classicism, the emergence of sentimentalism, the strengthening of realistic tendencies. The study of Russian literature of the 18th century is not limited to the fact that it posed and, if possible, resolved the pressing issues of its time. It largely prepared the brilliant achievements of the 19th century.
Sentimentalism features genres.
Related information.
Genres of Old Russian literature
a set of genres that arose and developed within Old Russian literature.
“The literary genres of Ancient Rus' have very significant differences from the genres of modern times: their existence, to a much greater extent than in modern times, is due to their use in practical life. They arise not only as varieties literary creativity, but also as certain phenomena of Old Russian way of life, everyday life, everyday life in the broadest sense of the word" (D.S. Likhachev).
Terminological dictionary-thesaurus on literary criticism. From allegory to iambic. - M.: Flinta, Science. N.Yu. Rusova. 2004.
See what “genres of ancient Russian literature” are in other dictionaries:
BIBLIOGRAPHY OF THEOLOGICAL LITERATURE- BIBLIOGRAPHY [from Greek. βιβλίον book and γράφω I write] THEOLOGICAL LITERATURE, information about publications related to the complex of scientific theological disciplines. The term "bibliography" appeared in Dr. Greece and originally meant “rewriting books.”… … Orthodox Encyclopedia
1) prose genre of Old Russian literature of didactic or political content in the form of a letter to a real or fictitious person. Rubric: types and genres of literature Genus: genres of ancient Russian literature Example: Message from Ivan the Terrible to the prince... ...
1) the basic unit of language, used to name objects, persons, processes, properties. Category: language. Finely means of expression Whole: vocabulary Other associative connections: sign, meaning of the word... Terminological dictionary-thesaurus on literary criticism
Historical genre of ancient Russian literature. Rubric: types and genres of literature Genus: genres of ancient Russian literature Example: The Tale of Bygone Years...A new genre of chronicle writing is born. The Tale of Bygone Years, one of the most significant works... ... Terminological dictionary-thesaurus on literary criticism
A genre of ancient Russian literature that tells about the lives of people ranked among the saints by the church. Rubric: types and genres of literature Genus: genres of ancient Russian literature Example: The Life of Theodosius, the Life of Alexander Nevsky date back to the 11th century... the first... Terminological dictionary-thesaurus on literary criticism
1) the genre of ancient Russian literature of a didactic and preaching nature. Rubric: types and genres of literature Genus: genres of ancient Russian literature Example: Teaching of Vladimir Monomakh Concerns about the fate of the country, imbued with deep humanity... ... Terminological dictionary-thesaurus on literary criticism
- (French genre genus, species) historically established and developing type work of art, which is determined on the basis of: 1) the work’s belonging to a particular literary genre; 2) predominant aesthetic quality... ... Terminological dictionary-thesaurus on literary criticism
The genre of travel in ancient Russian literature. Rubric: Genres and Genres of Literature Synonym: circulation Genus: Genres of Old Russian Literature Example: Afanasy Nikitin. Walking beyond the three seas The earliest walk of Ancient Rus' is the walk of the abbot... ... Terminological dictionary-thesaurus on literary criticism
Includes works from the 11th to 17th centuries, not only literary works themselves, but also historical works (chronicles), descriptions of travel (walkings), teachings, lives, epistles, etc. All these monuments contain elements of artistic creativity... Terminological dictionary-thesaurus on literary criticism
A ritual work of folklore, elegiac improvisation associated with funerals, weddings, recruitment and other rituals, crop failure, illness, etc. Rubric: genres and genres of literature Synonym: lamentation Genus: ritual poetry Other associative ... Terminological dictionary-thesaurus on literary criticism
Books
- Masterpieces of Old Russian Literature. “Manuscripts don’t burn” - this statement of one of Bulgakov’s heroes can rightfully be attributed to ancient Russian literary monuments, miraculously acquired, burning in the fire of 1812, and yet...
Old Russian(or Russian medieval, or ancient East Slavic) literature is a collection of written works, written on the territory of Kievan and then Muscovite Rus' in the period from the 11th to the 17th centuries. Old Russian literature is general ancient literature Russian, Belarusian and Ukrainian peoples.
Map of Ancient Rus'
The largest researchers
ancient Russian literature are academicians Dmitry Sergeevich Likhachev, Boris Aleksandrovich Rybakov, Alexey Aleksandrovich Shakhmatov.
Academician D.S. Likhachev
Old Russian literature was not the result fiction and had a close features
.
1. Fiction was not allowed in ancient Russian literature, since fiction is a lie, and lies are sinful. That's why all works were of a religious or historical nature. The right to fiction was conceptualized only in the 17th century.
2. Due to the lack of fiction in ancient Russian literature there was no concept of authorship, since the works either reflected real historical events or were expositions of Christian books. Therefore, works of ancient Russian literature have a compiler, a copyist, but not an author.
3. Works of ancient Russian literature were created in accordance with etiquette, that is, according to certain rules. Etiquette was formed from ideas about how the course of events should unfold, how the hero should behave, and how the compiler of the work should describe what is happening.
4. Old Russian literature developed very slowly: over seven centuries, only a few dozen works were created. This was explained, firstly, by the fact that the works were copied by hand, and the books were not replicated, since before 1564 there was no printing in Rus'; secondly, the number of literate (reading) people was very small.
Genres
Old Russian literature differed from modern ones.
Genre | Definition | Examples |
CHRONICLE |
Description of historical events by “year,” that is, by year. Goes back to ancient Greek chronicles. |
“The Tale of Bygone Years”, “Laurentian Chronicle”, “Ipatiev Chronicle” |
TEACHING | A father's spiritual testament to his children. | "Teaching of Vladimir Monomakh" |
LIFE (HAGIOGRAPHY) | Biography of a saint. | "The Life of Boris and Gleb", "The Life of Sergius of Radonezh", "The Life of Archpriest Avvakum" |
WALKING | Description of travel. | "Walking beyond the three seas", "Walking of the Virgin Mary through torment" |
WARRIOR TALE | Description of military campaigns. | "Zadonshchina", "The Tale of the Massacre of Mamayev" |
WORD | Genre of eloquence. | "The Word about Law and Grace", "The Word about the destruction of the Russian land" |
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