Examples of pathos from fiction. Types of pathos of the work

Closely connected with the idea is pathos (Greek pathos - feeling, passion) - inspiration, passionate experience of emotional uplift caused by an idea or event. In pathos, thought and feeling form a single whole. Ari istotel understood pathos as passion, which prompts one to write a work. By. Belinsky, pathos is "idea - passion" "From here, - A. Tkachenko notes, - conceptual tautology originates: you define the idea through pathos, and pathos - through the idea. according to which all types of pathos are created by the contradictions of social characters, as writers interpret on the basis of ideological positions. These positions include the partisanship of social thinking of writers and are conditioned. The class nature of their worldview "A. Tkachenko believes that the authors of the textbook a "Introduction to. Literary criticism" edited by. G. Pospelova, naming such types of pathos as heroic, dramatic, tragic, satirical, humorous, sentimental, romantic, do not observe the unity of other classification criteria. The dramatic, tragic, satirical is associated with genres, and the sentimental and romantic are associated with literary trends. Paphos, according to. A. Tkachenko, is an excessive rhetorical theatricality. He suggests using the term "tonality". A kind of tonality is pathos. In addition to the pathetic tonality, there is a lyric one with such subtypes as sentimentality, romance, humorists, honesty, melancholy; dramatic with tragic, satirical, sarcastic, sentimental, romantic subtypes; epic with subtypes: heroic, descriptive, fantastic; Epichna with Pidvids: heroic, descriptive, fantastic.

Each type of tonality has its own shades. So, in the lyrics, the tonality can be nostalgic, melancholic, mathematical. Positive emotions are associated with a major key. According to the opinion. A. Tkachenko, pathos is more secondary, deliberate than tonality.

Heroic pathos

The subject of heroic pathos is the heroism of reality itself - the activities of people who overcome the elements of nature, fight the reactionary forces of society, defend freedom and independence. Fatherland. The heroic loan has an important place in mythology. Ancient. Greece, where, along with the images of the gods, the images of heroes performing magnificent feats act, arouse admiration and a desire to imitate them. These are. Achilles ,. Patroclus. Hector from Homer's Iliad, heroes of myths. Prometheus,. Hercules ,. Perseracles ,. Perseus.

Italian philosopher. D. Vico in his work "Foundations of a new science about the general nature of nations" wrote that heroism is characteristic only for the initial state of human development - the "age of heroes". In his opinion, every nation goes through three stages - theocratic, aristocratic and democratic. The first stage corresponds to the "age of the gods", this is the period when people associate their history with mythology, imagining that they are ruled by the gods. The third stage - the "age of people" Between the "age of the gods" and the "age of people" is the "age of heroes" who reign in aristocratic republics. Vico believed that these heroes were rude, wild, uncultured, cruel, with unrestricted passions of heroes - rude, wild, uncultured, horrible, with unconstrained addictions.

According to the opinion. Hegel, heroism provides for the free self-determination of the individual, is not subject to laws. The hero performs national tasks as his own. Hegel believed that heroic activity is inherent in people who live in the "age of heroes", i.e. in the pre-state period. When the state reaches significant development, there comes, in his words, "a prosaically ordered reality", "each individual receives only a certain and limited part in the work of the whole" and "the state as a whole cannot be entrusted to arbitrariness, strength, masculinity, courage, and understanding. individual personality, good fortune, and intelligence of the individual ".

Hegel is right that the "age of heroes" was a historical stage in the development of nation states, when heroism could be discovered directly and freely. But with the emergence of states, heroism, contrary to the assertion. Гсгс then does not disappear, but changes its character, becomes conscious and morally responsible. So, count. Roland "Songs of O. Roland" dies for the freedom of his own. France. However, the state can be not only a progressive, but also a reactionary force that hinders national development, hence the need for anti-state activities of progressive people, directed against the obsolete government. This struggle requires significant heroic efforts and significant heroic zusils.

Since the era. Renaissance, national-historical heroism is closely linked with the formation of feudal states, and later - bourgeois nations

In the sociology of the 20th century, there are two opposite tendencies: one lies in the mystification of the heroic personality, the second excludes the possibility of a heroic personality in modern society. Englishman. Reglen wrote that th heroes are the product of social myths. According to an American sociologist. Daniela. Burstin, today the hero turns into a celebrity, who is the antipode of the hero.

Each era is characterized by its own type of heroism: either a liberation impulse, or self-sacrifice, or simply sacrifice in the name of universal human values. The heroic can manifest itself through the beautiful, the sublime, the tragic and the comic.

Paphos of drama

Like heroics, drama breeds the contradictions of life. Dramaticism arises when the high aspiration of people, and sometimes life, is threatened with defeat or death. Dramatic events and situations can be generally natural and random, but only the first are the themes of the works. Hegel noted that art is primarily interested in the socio-historical characteristic of the life of the individuals depicted.

When people wage an acute political struggle, become victims of repression, consciously prepare for wars of liberation, a deep drama arises in the actions and experiences of people. A writer can sympathize with characters who find themselves in a dramatic situation, such drama is ideologically asserting pathos. He can also condemn the characters responsible for the emergence of a dramatic state. In tragedy. Aeschylus "The Persians" is described to defeat the Persian fleet in a war of conquest against the Greeks. For. Aeschylus and. Ancient. Greece's experience of the Persians dramatic events is an act of condemnation of the enemy, encroached on the freedom of the Greeks. The pathos of drama. Pron hiccup "A word about the regiment. Igor" An example. Igor, the author of the work shows the sad consequences to which the princely feuds lead to the princes mіzhusobytsі.

In the story. M. Kotsyubinsky "Fata morgana", in the novel. Balzac's "Father. Goriot" drama arises from social inequality. The drama of events and experiences can have an ideologically affirming character. This kind of drama characterizes the "Song of Father Roland", which depicts the struggle of the Frankish troops. Charles V with the Saracens and death. Roland and. Oliver V. Ronsilvansky gorges Ronsilvansky gorge.

Personal relationships between people are often dramatic. The heroine of the novel. L. Tolstoy "Anna. Karenina", who did not experience happiness in family life, first recognized him with. Vronsky, she left her husband, broke with the hypocritical world, took upon herself the whole burden of the caste Vignanism, but could not stand it and committed suicide by suicide.

Sentimentality

Sentimentality as pathos must be distinguished from sentimentalism as a trend. Theorist of German sentimentalism. F. Schiller in the article

"On Naive and Sentimental Poetry" (1796) named the Roman poet the founder of sentimental poetry. Horace, exalts in her own. Tiebure "quiet luxury" F. Schiller calls. Horace by the post of "osvichnoi and spoiled era" Schiller wrote that sentimentality arose when the naive life with its moral integrity and purity receded into the past or was seen on the periphery of social relations. For the emergence of a sentimental worldview, it was necessary that discontent with its shortcomings appeared in society and that progressive forces found pleasure in striving for a morally pure and civilian life, leaving for the past life, as if to enter the past.

G. Pospelov believes that talking about the sentimental pathos of the works. Horace, Virgil's Bucolics, idylls. Theocritus, a story. The foal "Daphnis and. Chloe" is not worth it, because they do not have "the emotional reflection of the faces themselves alive and even more - their authors" The first glimpses of sentimentality he finds in the works of the Provencal troubadours (XII century). The pathos of sentimentality was clearly manifested in the literature of the 18th century, its hero. OEM was a simple, humble, sincere person who retained vestiges of patriarchy. This hero became the subject of artistic reflection, becoming the subject of artistic reflection.

The origins of sentimental feelings in Ukrainian literature date back to the 17th-18th centuries; they originated in the Baroque era. Sentimental writers are imbued with sympathy for heroes who cannot find harmony. Monet in real life they are far from socio-political conflicts, but close to nature, their sensitivity comes from the "heart" for the heroes. I. Kotlyarevsky ("Natalka. Poltavka") ,. G. Kvitki-Osnovyanenko. There is. Combs ("Tchaikovsky") are characterized by adamant moral convictions, a desire to overcome their sufferings, internal stoicism of their fellow citizens, internal stoicism.

The cordocentric character of Ukrainian philosophy had a noticeable influence on the formation of Ukrainian sentimentalism. "In contrast to the Western European philosophical tradition, where the" heart "never had an ontological aspect, - notes I. Limborsky, - in Ukrainian thinkers it has been since the time. acts as a source of all feelings, and as an instrument of cognition, which should be unconditionally trusted and carefully done. "

In the textbook "Introduction to. Literary criticism" ed. G. Pospelova has the following definition of sentimental pathos: "This emotional touchingness is caused by the awareness of moral dignity in the characters of people who are socially humiliated or associated with an immoral privileged environment.

The conditions for the emergence of sentimental pathos also exist in the literature of the XIX-XX centuries. The story is a prime example. F. Dostoevsky's "Poor People", his hero is an official. Devushkin is poor small man who doesn't care about employees for just rewriting papers. But he is proud that he honestly earns his own piece of bread, considers himself a respectable citizen, highly values ​​his "ambition", his reputation, and he wants to protect himself from humiliation through humiliation.

The pathos of sentimentality is present in the works. Yuri Fedkovich ("Lyuba-blight") ,. P. Grabowski ("The Seamstress")

The ability for emotional reflection contributed to the emergence of not only sentimentality, but also romance.

Romance

Sentimentality is a reflection of affection, soundness, caused by a past life with its simplicity, moral perfection of relationships and experiences. Romance is a reflective enthusiasm directed towards the sublime, towards the ideal. The word "romantic" (French romantique) first appeared in English poetry and criticism in the middle of the 18th century (Thomson, Collins) to define the pathos of creativity and creativity.

Romance is most often associated with the idea of ​​national independence, civil freedom, equality and brotherhood of peoples, this is an upbeat mood

O. Veselovsky called romantic writers enthusiasts. Romance is the enthusiasm of emotional aspirations and feelings. She appeared in the Middle Ages, she is imbued with works about the legendary knights, and love lyrics. Petrarch, novel. Cervantes "Don. Quixote", tragedy. Shakespeare's "Romeo and Juliet" Romantic pathos is present in the works of sentimentalists, romantics, realists, etc. Neo-romanticism and neo-romanticism.

Yu. Kuznetsov defines romantic pathos as "a dreamy, upbeat mood, which is characterized by outbursts of feelings, heightened experience of unusual events, the process of activity, opposed to the ordinary"

Humor and satire

Humor (Latin humor - moisture) is a reflection of the funny, amusing in life phenomena and characters, a manifestation of an optimistic, cheerful attitude to reality, the triumph of healthy forces over the backward, without promising ones. Humor can be soft, benevolent, sad, sarcastic, caustic, vulgar "The object of humor, - according to the observation. Yu. Kuznetsova, - appears not an integral phenomenon, object or person, but separate and flaws in the whole of positive phenomena, inadequate to a specific situation of human actions vchinki ...

Humor, including the contradictions and contrasts of life, is created primarily by metaphor, and not by comparison, which allows you to reveal the sublime in a limited, petty fact, therefore, in artistic expression, it often acquires not as critical as optimistic colors.

Humor is basically a manifestation of an optimistic, humanistic attitude to reality, the triumph of healthy forces over the joyless, hopeless. According to the opinion. Voltaire, satire should be prickly and at the same time cheerful. The sting of satire is directed against socially significant ugly facts. The object of satire is social-comic, dangerous for society and man, the object of humor is elementary-comic. Laughter in satire and g of hilarity has a different tonality, different levels of social and artistic understanding of life phenomena. Sometimes humorous and satirical tonality coexist in one work. Humor and satire can combine such types of comic as wit, irony, sarcasm, and methods such as pathos, pun, caricature, parody, joke, hyperbole.

A deep and historically truthful understanding and assessment of the characters depicted, generated by their objective meaning, is the pathos of the creative thought of the writer and his work.

Works that are not distinguished by deep problematics, comprehension and assessment of characters do not rise to the level of pathos. Due to significant differences in the most knowable life, the pathos of literary works also reveals several varieties. It can be heroic, tragic, dramatic, or sentimental and romantic, or humorous and satirical.

Heroics and romance, drama and tragedy, humor and satire - all this is a deep and truthful awareness and emotional assessment of what is happening and exists in reality.

Heroic pathos - embodies the assertion of the greatness of the feat of an individual and a whole collective, which is of great importance for the development of a people, nation, humanity. Heroics always presupposes the free self-determination of the individual, her effective initiative, and not obedient obedience.

Since the Renaissance, the content of national - historical heroism is largely associated with the formation of feudal states. In works fiction, reflecting and glorifying heroics, historical events are often reproduced, real historical figures act.

Tragic pathos

Belinsky noted: "The tragic thing consists in the collision of the natural attraction of the heart with the idea of ​​duty - arising from that struggle and, finally, victory and fall." From this definition it follows that one side is "the natural attraction of the heart", i.e. emotional personal attachments and feelings of love, etc., and the other side is the "idea of ​​duty", that which hinders the "attraction of the heart", that with which the lover is connected by the consciousness of the moral law. Usually these are the laws of marriage, vows, responsibility to the family, but also to the homeland, the state.

The power of the ruling classes has already lost its progressiveness, has become reactionary, but the social forces that could overthrow it are still too weak for this. Such a conflict often determined the tragedy of popular uprisings and revolutionary movements.

Tragic contradictions often manifest themselves in privacy, not directly related to political conflicts but related to the moral and everyday sphere.

Tragic contradictions arise in the process of the development of society; they have not an individual, not accidental, but a content-historical character. They manifest themselves in the social behavior of people, dooming them to suffering, sometimes to death. Reproducing the tragic contradictions in their works, comprehending them, typing, the writers reinforce the painful experiences of their heroes in the plots of their works and intensify the difficult events taking place in their lives.

Satirical pathos is the most powerful and harsh, indignant and mocking denunciation of certain parties. public life... Satirical pathos is generated by the objective comic properties of life, and in it an ironic mockery of the comic of life is combined with sharp denunciation, indignation. Satirical laughter differs from simple playfulness or mockery in its cognitive content. Such laughter does not refer to an individual person or event, but to those general characteristic features social life, which found its manifestation in them.

Satire appeared later than heroics, tragedy. In Russia, the development of satire is closely related to historical life society. In the 17th century, satire is represented in folk art.

Humor is a laugh at harmless, comic contradictions, combined with pity for people who display this comic. In Russian literature, the greatest humorists were N.V. Gogol, the greatest satirist Saltykov-Shchedrin, M. Zoshchenko and many others

Sentimental pathos is a spiritual sensitivity caused by the awareness of moral merits in the characters of people who are socially humiliated. The founder of sentimentalism in Russia is N. Karamzin. An example of sentimental literature is his story "Poor Liza".

In literary works, sentimentality has an ideological and affirmative orientation.

The pathos of sentimentality is evident in the works of the second half of the 18th century. Sentimental orientation often appeared in the literature of the 19th century. So, in some works of Russian literature of the 40-60s of the 19th century, a sensual attitude towards the life of a serf is expressed. For example, in I. Turgenev's "Bezhin's meadow", some of Nekrasov's poems "Orina, the soldier's mother", "Frost, Red nose", in Dostoevsky's story "Poor people".

Literature

• 1.G. N. Pospelov. Paphos of a work of art, M., 1983.
• 2. Dubrovina I. M. Romance in works of art. M. 1989
• 3. "Foundations of the Theory of Literature" ed. acad. Timofeeva, M., 1963.
• 4. Literary encyclopedia... M., 1990.
• 1. Mints Yu.V. Poetics of Russian Romanticism. M., 1957.

Not everything in the content of a literary work is determined by themes and ideas. The author expresses the ideological and emotional attitude to the subject with the help of images. And, although the author's emotionality is individual, some elements are regularly repeated. V different works similar emotions, similar types of illumination of life are manifested. The types of this emotional orientation include tragedy, heroism, romance, drama, sentimentality, as well as the comic with its varieties (humor, irony, grotesque, sarcasm, satire).

The theoretical status of these concepts is controversial. Some modern scientists, continuing the traditions of V.G. Belinsky, they call them "types of pathos" (G. Pospelov). Others call it “modes of artistry” (V. Tyup) and add that these are the embodiment of the author's concept of personality. Still others (V.Khalizev) call them “worldview emotions”.

The events and actions depicted in many works are based on conflict, opposition, the struggle of someone with someone, something with something.

At the same time, contradictions can be not only of different strength, but also of different content and character. A kind of answer that the reader often wants to find is the author's emotional attitude to the characters of the characters portrayed and to the type of their behavior, to conflicts. Indeed, a writer can sometimes reveal his sympathies and antipathies to a particular type of personality, while not always evaluating it unequivocally. So, F.M. Dostoevsky, condemning what Raskolnikov invented, at the same time sympathizes with him. IS Turgenev examines Bazarov through the mouth of Pavel Petrovich Kirsanov, but at the same time appreciates him, emphasizing his intelligence, knowledge, will: “Bazarov is smart and knowing,” Nikolai Petrovich Kirsanov says with conviction.

It is from the essence and content of the contradictions exposed in a work of art that its emotional tonality depends. And the word pathos is now perceived much broader than a poetic idea, it is the emotional and value orientation of the work and the characters.

So, different types pathos.

Tragic tonality is present where there is a violent conflict that cannot be tolerated and cannot be safely resolved. It can be a contradiction between man and superhuman forces (fate, God, elements). It can be a confrontation between groups of people (a war of nations), finally, an internal conflict, that is, a clash of opposing principles in the mind of one hero. This is the awareness of an irreparable loss: human life, freedom, happiness, love.

The understanding of the tragic goes back to the writings of Aristotle. The theoretical development of the concept refers to the aesthetics of romanticism and Hegel. Central character- this is a tragic hero, a person caught in a situation of discord with life. This is a strong personality, not bendable by circumstances, and therefore doomed to suffering and death.

These conflicts include the contradictions between personal impulses and transpersonal restrictions - caste, class, moral. Such contradictions gave rise to the tragedy of Romeo and Juliet, who loved each other, but belonged to different clans of the Italian society of their time; Katerina Kabanova, who fell in love with Boris and understood the sinfulness of her love for him; Anna Karenina, tormented by the consciousness of the abyss between her, society and her son.

A tragic situation can also arise in the presence of a contradiction between the desire for happiness, freedom and the hero's awareness of his weakness and powerlessness in achieving them, which entails the motives of skepticism and doom. For example, such motives sound in the speech of Mtsyri, pouring out his soul to the old monk and trying to explain to him how he dreamed of living in his aul, but had to spend his whole life, except for three days, in a monastery. The fate of Elena Stakhova from the novel by I.S. Turgenev "On the Eve", who lost her husband immediately after the wedding and went with his coffin to a foreign country.

The height of the tragic pathos is that it instills faith in a person who has courage, who remains true to himself even before death. Since antiquity, the tragic hero has had to experience a moment of guilt. According to Hegel, this guilt lies in the fact that a person violates the established order. Therefore, the concept of tragic guilt is characteristic of the works of tragic pathos. It is both in the tragedy "King Oedipus" and in the tragedy "Boris Godunov". The frame of mind in works of this kind is sorrow and compassion. Since the second half of the 19th century, the tragic is understood more and more broadly. It includes everything that causes fear, horror in human life. After the spread of the philosophical doctrines of Schopenhauer and Nietzsche, the existentialists attach a universal meaning to the tragic. In accordance with such views, the main property of human existence is catastrophic. Life is meaningless due to the death of individual beings. In this aspect, the tragic is reduced to a feeling of hopelessness, and those qualities that were characteristic of a strong personality (affirmation of courage, resilience) are leveled out and are not taken into account.

In a literary work, both the tragic and the dramatic beginnings can be combined with the heroic. Heroics arises and is felt there and then when people take or are taking active actions for the good of others, in the name of protecting the interests of a tribe, clan, state, or just a group of people in need of help. People are ready to take risks, to meet death with dignity in the name of the realization of lofty ideals. Most often, such situations occur during periods of national liberation wars or movements. Moments of heroism were reflected in the "Lay of Igor's Regiment" in the decision of Prince Igor to join the fight against the Polovtsy. At the same time, heroic and tragic situations can also take place in peacetime, in moments of natural disasters arising from the "fault" of nature (floods, earthquakes) or the person himself. Accordingly, they appear in the literature. Events in folk epics, legends, and epics reach greater poeticization. The hero in them is an exceptional figure, his deeds are a socially significant feat. Hercules, Prometheus, Vasily Buslaev. Sacrificial heroism in the novel "War and Peace", the poem "Vasily Terkin". In the 1930s and 1940s, heroism was required under duress. From the works of Gorky, the thought was implanted: in everyone's life there should be a feat. In the 20th century, the literature of struggle contains heroics of resistance to lawlessness, heroics of defending the right to freedom (stories by V. Shalamov, V. Maksimov's novel "The Star of Admiral Kolchak").

L.N. Gumilev believed that the truly heroic could only be at the origins of the life of the people. Any nation-building process begins with the heroic deeds of small groups of people. He called these people passionaries. But crisis situations that demand heroic sacrificial accomplishments from people always arise. Therefore, the heroic in literature will always be significant, high and inescapable. An important condition for the heroic, Hegel believed, is free will. A forced feat (the case of a gladiator), in his opinion, cannot be heroic.

Heroics can also be combined with romance. Romance is called an enthusiastic state of personality, caused by the desire for something lofty, beautiful, morally significant. The sources of romance are the ability to feel the beauty of nature, to feel part of the world, the need to respond to someone else's pain and someone else's joy. Natasha Rostova's behavior often gives reason to perceive him as romantic, because of all the heroes of the novel "War and Peace" she alone has a lively nature, a positively emotional charge, unlike young ladies of the world, which was immediately noticed by the rational Andrei Bolkonsky.

For the most part, romance manifests itself in the sphere of personal life, revealing itself in moments of expectation or the onset of happiness. Since happiness in the minds of people is primarily associated with love, then the romantic attitude is likely to make itself felt at the moment when love approaches or hopes for it. We meet the depiction of romantically inclined characters in the works of I.S. Turgenev, for example, in his story "Asya", where the heroes (Asya and Mr. N.), who are close to each other in spirit and culture, experience joy, emotional uplift, which is expressed in their enthusiastic perception of nature, art and themselves, in joy communicating with each other. And yet, most often, the pathos of romance is associated with an emotional experience that does not turn into an action or deed. Achieving a lofty ideal is impossible in principle. So, in Vysotsky's poems, it seems to young men that they were born late to participate in wars:

And in basements and semi-basements

The kids wanted under the tanks,

They didn't even get a bullet ...

The world of romance is a dream, fantasy, romantic performances often correlate with the past, exotic: "Borodino" by Lermontov, "Shulamith" by Kuprin, "Mtsyri" by Lermontov, "Giraffe" by Gumilyov.

The pathos of romance can act together with other types of pathos: irony in Blok, heroism in Mayakovsky, satire in Nekrasov.

The combination of heroism and romance is possible in those cases when the hero performs or wants to perform a feat, and this is perceived by him as something sublime. Such an interweaving of heroism and romance is observed in War and Peace in the behavior of Petya Rostov, who was obsessed with the desire to personally take part in the struggle against the French, which led to his death.

The predominant tonality in the content of the overwhelming number works of art undoubtedly dramatic. Unwell, disorder, dissatisfaction of a person in the spiritual sphere, in personal relationships, in social status - these are the real signs of drama in life and literature. The failed love of Tatyana Larina, Princess Mary, Katerina Kabanova and other heroines of famous works testifies to the dramatic moments of their lives.

Moral and intellectual dissatisfaction and lack of realization of personal capabilities of Chatsky, Onegin, Bazarov, Bolkonsky and others; social humiliation of Akaki Akakievich Bashmachkin from the story of N.V. Gogol's "The Overcoat", as well as the Marmeladov family from the novel by F.M. Dostoevsky's "Crime and Punishment", many heroines from the poem by N.A. Nekrasov "Who Lives Well in Russia", almost all the characters of M. Gorky's play "At the Bottom" - all this serves as a source and indicator of dramatic contradictions.

Emphasizing romantic, dramatic, tragic and, of course, heroic moments in the lives of heroes and their moods in most cases becomes a form of expression of sympathy for the heroes, a way of supporting and protecting them by the author. Undoubtedly, W. Shakespeare is experiencing with Romeo and Juliet about the circumstances that hinder their love, A.S. Pushkin regrets Tatiana, not understood by Onegin, F.M. Dostoevsky mourns the fate of such girls as Dunya and Sonya, A.P. Chekhov sympathizes with the suffering of Gurov and Anna Sergeevna, who fell in love with each other very deeply and seriously, but they have no hope of uniting their destinies.

However, it happens that the portrayal of romantic moods becomes a way of debunking the hero, sometimes even condemning him. So, for example, Lensky's vague verses evoke a slight irony of A.S. Pushkin. Fyodor Dostoevsky's portrayal of Raskolnikov's dramatic experiences is in many ways a form of condemnation of a hero who conceived a monstrous version of correcting his life and is entangled in his thoughts and feelings.

Sentimentality is a kind of pathos with a predominance of subjectivity and sensitivity. All R. In the 18th century, he was dominant in the works of Richardson, Stern, Karamzin. He is in "The Overcoat" and "Old World Landowners", at the early Dostoevsky, in "Mu-mu", the poetry of Nekrasov.

Much more often humor and satire play a defamatory role. In this case, humor and satire means another version of the emotional orientation. Both in life and in art, humor and satire are generated by such characters and situations that are called comic. The essence of the comic consists in detecting and revealing the discrepancy between the real capabilities of people (and, accordingly, the characters) and their claims, or the discrepancy between their essence and visibility. The pathos of satire is destructive, satire reveals socially significant vices, exposes deviations from the norm, ridicules. The pathos of humor is affirming, because the subject of a humorous sensation sees not only the shortcomings of others, but also his own. Awareness of one's own shortcomings gives hope of healing (Zoshchenko, Dovlatov). Humor is an expression of optimism (Vasily Terkin, The Adventures of the Good Soldier Schweik by Hasek).

A mocking and evaluative attitude towards comic characters and situations is called irony. Unlike the previous ones, she carries skepticism. She disagrees with her assessment of life, situation, or character. In Voltaire's story "Candide, or Optimism", the hero, by his fate, refutes his own attitude: "Everything is done, everything is for the best." But the opposite opinion “all for the worse” is not accepted either. Voltaire's pathos in a mocking skepticism towards extreme principles. Irony can be light, gentle, but it can become unkind, judgmental. Deep irony, which causes not a smile and laughter in the usual sense of the word, but a bitter experience, is called sarcasm. The reproduction of comic characters and situations, accompanied by an ironic assessment, leads to the appearance of humorous or satirical works of art: Moreover, humorous and satirical works can be not only works of verbal art (parodies, anecdotes, fables, stories, stories, plays), but also drawings, sculptural images , mimic representations.

In the story of A.P. Chekhov's "Death of an official" comic manifests itself in the ridiculous behavior of Ivan Dmitrievich Chervyakov, who, being in the theater, accidentally sneezed on the general's bald head and was so frightened that he began to pester him with his apologies and pursued him until he provoked the general's real anger that and led the official to death. The absurdity of the discrepancy between the deed committed (sneezed) and the reaction caused by it (repeated attempts to explain to the general that he, Chervyakov, did not want to offend him). In this story, sadness is mixed with the funny, since such a fear of a tall face is a sign of the dramatic position of a little official in the system of official relations. Fear can create unnatural behavior in a person. This situation was reproduced by N.V. Gogol in the comedy "The Inspector General". The identification of serious contradictions in the behavior of the heroes, which gives rise to a clearly negative attitude towards them, becomes a hallmark of satire. Classic examples of satire are provided by M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin ("How a man fed two generals") Esalnek A. Ya. S. 13-22 ..

Grotesque (French grotesque, literally - bizarre; comic; Italian grottesco - bizarre, Italian grotta - grotto, cave) - one of the varieties of the comic, combines in a fantastic form terrible and funny, ugly and sublime, and also brings the distant together, combines incongruous, intertwines the unreal with the real, the present with the future, reveals the contradictions of reality. As a form of comic, grotesque differs from humor and irony in that in it the funny and the funny are inseparable from the terrible and sinister; as a rule, images of the grotesque carry a tragic meaning. In the grotesque behind the external implausibility, fantasticness lies a deep artistic generalization of the important phenomena of life. The term "grotesque" became widespread in the fifteenth century, when during the excavation of underground rooms (grottoes), wall paintings with bizarre patterns were discovered, in which motifs from plant and animal life were used. Therefore, initially, distorted images were called grotesque. How artistic image grotesque is distinguished by its two-dimensionality, contrast. Grotesque is always a deviation from the norm, convention, exaggeration, deliberate caricature, therefore it is widely used for satirical purposes. Examples of literary grotesque are N. V. Gogol's story "The Nose" or "Little Tsakhes, nicknamed Zinnober" by E. TA Hoffman, fairy tales and stories by M. Ye. Saltykov-Shchedrin.

To define pathos means to establish the type of attitude towards the world and the person in the world.

This category was first developed quite fully by Aristotle, who, along with pathos, highlighted the elements of rhetoric: ethos and logos. Delving deeper into the study of the interpretation of Aristotle, we will see that pathos is a kind of technique that conveys the aesthetics of the story through the tragedy of the hero, his suffering; the response emotions of the audience are not ignored either. Through pathos, the author or orator evokes the necessary feelings in the audience, not fully revealing their own ...

Later, Hegel expanded the concept of pathos, in addition to the tragic, it began to include solemn sublime aesthetics. Paphos is divided into heroic, tragic, satirical, sentimental and romantic. In their creations, it is used by the authors of epics, odes, tragedies. In the modern sense, this term denotes the bombast and pretentiousness of feelings, the transmission of not all cases of sincere emotions only for the sake of a specific impact on the territory.

Types of pathos

The heroic pathos shows the greatness of a person going to a feat in the name of the common good. At the same time, the action of the hero is impossible without personal risk, there is always the possibility of significant loss of any essential values ​​- not excluding life itself. Another main condition for the manifestation of heroic pathos is the freedom of will and initiative of a person: forced actions cannot be attributed to heroic ones. The desire to remake a seemingly unjust world or the desire to defend a world close to the ideal is the emotional basis of heroics.

Tragic pathos in Ancient Greece associated with the domination of the will of the gods over the lives of people or with the recognition of the guilt of tragic heroes who violated the highest law and are paying for it. Tragic pathos is always associated with the awareness of irreparable loss, a person loses some important values ​​- life, social, national or personal freedom, personal happiness, cultural values, etc. The insolubility of the conflict, inherent in this type of pathos, is always associated with sacrifices, the death of humanistic goals. This nature of the conflict is present, for example, in "Little Tragedies" by A.S. Pushkin.

The satirical pathos can be determined by the indignant, mocking denial of any aspect of public life. Here, characters and interpersonal relationships are mockingly interpreted and portrayed accordingly. It is laughter in the form of "penetrating" and deepening that reflects the main property of satire. The satirical pathos in the work can show the mockery and irony of the character, for example, in relation to high-ranking people who attach great importance to mere trifles. This kind of pathos is found in the works of N.V. Gogol, A.S. Griboedova, M.A. Bulgakov and others.

Sentimental pathos. Almost every person periodically shows sentimentality - most people find it difficult to indifferently walk past a suffering person or animal. As an example, consider the story of JV Goethe "The Suffering of Young Werther". It shows the experiences of a young man who is disappointed by the empty and vain life of society. Werther accepts a simple rural life, admires nature, helps the poor. Hopelessly in love with married Lotte, he commits suicide.

Romantic pathos reflects the delight associated with the pursuit of a lofty ideal. It is common for a romantic hero to be tragic, not to accept reality, to be at odds with himself, he is both a rebel and a victim at the same time. Romantic heroes usually natures are spiritually rich, but it is not possible for them to fully express themselves - life sets its boundaries. The world such heroes oppose a higher, ideal world that is created thanks to creative imagination the author.

Romantic pathos is similar to heroic in that in both types of pathos, heroes strive for lofty ideals. However, heroism is a sphere of active action, while romance reflects emotional experiences and aspirations that do not turn into action.

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Closely connected with the idea is pathos (Greek Pathos - feeling, passion) - inspiration, passionate experience of emotional uplift caused by an idea or event. In pathos, thought and feeling form a single whole. Aristotle understood pathos as passion, which prompts one to write a work. According to Belinsky, pathos is "an idea - a passion". “From here,” notes A. Tkachenko, “conceptual tautology originates: the idea is defined through pathos, and pathos through the idea. are comprehended on the basis of ideological positions. These positions include the partisanship of the social thinking of writers and the class nature of their worldview. " A. Tkachenko believes that the authors of the textbook "Introduction to Literary Criticism" edited by G. Pospelov, naming such types of pathos as heroic, dramatic, tragic, satirical, humorous, sentimental, romantic, do not observe uniform classification criteria. Dramatic, tragic, satirical is associated with genres, and sentimental and romantic - with literary directions... Paphos, according to A. Tkachenko, is excessive rhetoric and theatricality. He suggests using the term "tonality". The kind of tonality is pathos. In addition to the pathetic tonality, there is a lyric one with such subtypes as sentimentality, romance, humor, melancholy; dramatic with tragic, satirical, sarcastic, sentimental, romantic subtypes; epic with subtypes: heroic, descriptive, fantastic.

Each type of tonality has its own shades. So, in the lyrics, the tonality can be nostalgic, melancholic, sad. Positive emotions are associated with a major key. According to A. Tkachenko, the pathos is more rhetorical and deliberate than tonality.

Heroic pathos

The subject of heroic pathos is the heroism of reality itself - the activities of people who overcome the elements of nature, fight the reactionary forces of society, defend the freedom and independence of the Fatherland. The heroic occupies an important place in the mythology of Ancient Greece, where, along with the images of the gods, the images of heroes act, who perform majestic feats, arousing admiration and a desire to imitate them. Such are Achilles, Patroclus, Hector from Homer's Iliad, the heroes of myths Prometheus, Hercules, Perseus.

The Italian philosopher D. Vico in his work "Foundations of a New Science of the General Nature of Nations" wrote that heroism is characteristic only of the initial state of human development - "the age of heroes." In his opinion, each nation goes through three stages - theocratic, aristocratic and democratic. the stage corresponds to the "age of the gods", this is the period when people associate their history with mythology, imagining that they are ruled by the gods. The third stage is the "age of people." Between the "age of the gods" and the "age of people" is the "age of heroes" reign in aristocratic republics.Viko believed that these heroes are rude, wild, uncultured, cruel, with unlimited passions.

According to Hegel, heroism provides for the free self-determination of the individual, is not subject to laws. The hero performs national tasks as his own. Hegel believed that heroic activity is inherent in people who live in the "age of heroes", that is, in the pre-state period. When the state reaches significant development, there comes, in his words, "a prosaically ordered reality", "each individual receives only a certain and limited part in the work of the whole" and "the state as a whole ... cannot be entrusted to arbitrariness, strength, courage, courage and the understanding of the individual. "

Hegel was right that the "age of heroes" was a historical stage in the development of nation states, when heroism could be discovered directly and freely. But with the emergence of states, heroism, contrary to Gsgsl's assertion, does not disappear, but changes its character, becomes conscious and morally responsible. So, Count Roland "Songs of Roland" dies for the freedom of his native France. However, the state can be not only a progressive, but also a reactionary force that hinders national development, hence the need for anti-state activities of progressive people, directed against the obsolete government. This fight requires significant heroic efforts.

Starting with the Renaissance, national-historical heroism is closely associated with the formation of feudal states, and later - bourgeois nations.

In the sociology of the 20th century, there are two opposite tendencies: one consists in the mystification of the heroic personality, the second rejects the possibility of a heroic personality in modern society. The Englishman Reglen wrote that heroes are a product of social myths. According to the American sociologist Daniela Burstin, today the hero turns into a celebrity, who is the opposite of the hero.

Each era is characterized by its own type of heroism: either a liberation impulse, or self-sacrifice, or simply sacrifice in the name of universal human values. The heroic can manifest itself through the beautiful, the sublime, the tragic and the comic.

Paphos of drama

Like heroics, drama breeds the contradictions of life. Dramaticism arises when the high aspirations of people, and sometimes life, are threatened with defeat or death. Dramatic events and situations can be socially natural and random, but only the first are the themes of the works. Hegel noted that art is primarily interested in the socio-historical characteristic of the life of the individuals depicted.

When people wage an acute political struggle, become victims of repression, consciously prepare for wars of liberation, a deep drama arises in the actions and experiences of people. A writer can sympathize with characters who find themselves in a dramatic situation, such drama is ideologically asserting pathos. He can also condemn the characters responsible for the emergence of a dramatic state. The tragedy of Aeschylus "The Persians" depicts the defeat of the Persian fleet in the war of conquest against the Greeks. For Aeschylus and Ancient Greece, the Persians' experience of dramatic events is an act of condemnation of the enemy who encroached on the freedom of the Greeks. The pathos of drama is imbued with "The Lay of Igor's Campaign". Using Igor as an example, the author of the work shows what sad consequences princely feuds lead to.

In M. Kotsiubinsky's story "Fata morgana", in Balzac's novel "Father Goriot", drama arises as a result of social inequality. The drama of events and experiences can have an ideologically affirming character. Such drama is characteristic of "The Song of Roland", which depicts the struggle of the Frankish troops of Charles V with the Saracens and the death of Roland and Oliver in the Ronsilvan Gorge.

Personal relationships between people are often dramatic. The heroine of L. Tolstoy's novel "Anna Karenina", who did not endure happiness in her family life, first recognized him with Vronsky, left her husband, broke with the hypocritical world, took upon herself the entire burden of class-based denigration, but could not stand it and committed suicide.

Sentimentality

Sentimentality as pathos must be distinguished from sentimentalism as a trend. The theorist of German sentimentalism F. Schiller in the article

"On Naive and Sentimental Poetry" (1796) named the Roman poet Horace as the founder of sentimental poetry, he extols "quiet luxury" in his Tibura. F. Schiller calls Horace fasting "an enlightened and corrupted era." Schiller wrote that sentimentality arose when the naive life with its moral integrity and purity receded into the past or was seen on the periphery of social relations. For the emergence of a sentimental worldview, it was necessary that dissatisfaction with its shortcomings appeared in society and that its progressive forces found pleasure in the pursuit of a morally pure and whole life, which is becoming a thing of the past.

G. Pospelov believes that talking about the sentimental pathos of the works of Horace, the "bucolic" of Virgil, the idylls of Theocritus, the story of the Foal "Daphnis and Chloe" is not worth it, because they do not contain "the emotional reflection of the characters themselves and even more of their authors." He finds the first glimpses of sentimentality in the works of the Provencal troubadours (XII century). The pathos of sentimentality was clearly manifested in the literature of the 18th century. her hero was a simple, modest, sincere person who retained vestiges of patriarchy. This hero became the subject of artistic reflection.

The origins of sentimental feelings in Ukrainian literature date back to the 17th-18th centuries. They originate in the Baroque era. Sentimental writers are imbued with empathy for heroes who cannot find harmony in real life. They are far from socio-political conflicts, but close to nature, their sensitivity comes from the "heart". The heroes of I. Kotlyarevsky ("Natalka Poltavka"), G. Kvitka-Osnovyanenko, E. Grebenka ("Tchaikovsky") are characterized by adamant moral convictions, a desire to overcome their sufferings, and internal stoicism.

The formation of Ukrainian sentimentalism was significantly influenced by the cordocentric character of Ukrainian philosophy. "Unlike the Western European philosophical tradition, where the" heart "never had an ontological aspect, - notes I. Limborsky - in Ukrainian thinkers, since the time of G. Skovoroda, it has been a source of all feelings and an instrument of cognition that should be unconditionally trusted" ...

In the textbook "Introduction to Literary Studies" ed. G. Pospelova has a definition of sentimental pathos: "This is emotional touching, caused by the awareness of moral dignity in the characters of people who are socially humiliated or associated with an immoral privileged environment."

The conditions for the emergence of sentimental pathos also exist in the literature of the XIX-XX centuries. A striking example is Dostoevsky's story "Poor People". its hero, the official Devushkin, is a poor, little man who is despised by employees for just rewriting papers. But he is proud that earning a piece of bread, considers himself a respectable citizen, highly values ​​his "ambitions", his reputation, is ready to defend himself from humiliation.

The pathos of sentimentality in the works of Y. Fedkovich ("Lyuba the Destruction"), P. Grabowski ("The Seamstress").

The ability for emotional reflection contributed to the emergence of not only sentimentality, but also romance.

Romance

Sentimentality is a reflection of affection, emotion, caused by a past life with its simplicity, moral perfection of relationships and experiences. Romance is a reflective passion, directed towards the sublime, towards the ideal. The word "romantic" (French Romantique) first appeared in English poetry and criticism in the middle of the 18th century. (Thomson, Collins) to define the pathos of creativity.

Romance is most often associated with the idea of ​​national independence, civil freedom, equality and brotherhood of peoples; this is an upbeat mood.

A. Veselovsky called romantic writers enthusiasts. Romance is the enthusiasm of emotional longing and feelings. It appeared in the Middle Ages, it is imbued with works about legendary knights, love lyrics by Petrarch, Cervantes' novel Don Quixote, Shakespeare's tragedy Romeo and Juliet. Romantic pathos is present in the works of sentimentalists, romantics, realists and neo-romanticists.

Yu. Kuznetsov defines romantic pathos as "a dreamy, sublime mood, which is characterized by outbursts of feelings, heightened experience of unusual events, the process of activity, opposed to the commonplace."

Humor and satire

Humor (lat. Humor - moisture) is a reflection of the funny, amusing in life phenomena and characters, a manifestation of an optimistic, cheerful attitude to reality, the triumph of healthy forces over the backward, hopeless ones. Humor can be soft, friendly, sad, sarcastic, picky, vulgar. “The object of humor,” according to Yu. Kuznetsov's observation, “is not a holistic phenomenon, object or person, but some errors in the whole of positive phenomena, human actions inadequate to a particular situation ...

Humor, including the contradictions and contrasts of life, is created primarily by metaphor, and not by comparison, which makes it possible to reveal the sublime in a limited, petty fact, therefore, in artistic expression, it often acquires not as critical as an optimistic color. "

Humor is basically a manifestation of an optimistic, humanistic attitude to reality, the triumph of healthy forces over the joyless, hopeless. According to Voltaire, satire should be prickly and fun at the same time. The sting of satire is directed against socially significant ugly facts. The object of satire is social-comic, dangerous for society and man, the object of humor is elementary-comic. Laughter in satire and humor has a different tonality, different levels of social and artistic comprehension of life phenomena. Sometimes humorous and satirical tonality coexist in one work. Humor and satire can combine such types of comic as wit, irony, sarcasm, and methods such as pathos, pun, caricature, parody, joke, hyperbole.